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B  E AZIL 


ITS   CONDITION  AND   PROSPECTS 


BT 

C.    C.    ANDREWS 

EX-CONSUL-GENERAL  TO  BRAZIL,    AND    FORMERLY  U^^TED  STATES  MINISTER  TO 
SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


.».    ••■^ 


'    J    J     3  '"  j'.  e^i  i,  i  I 


1       9i 


NEW  YOEK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1887 


TRESERVATiOl^l  'f^^, 

COPY  ADDED  /\(£) 

oraGiNALToee  'on 

RETAINED  \q,%  I 
JAN  I  1  1993 


COPTBIGHT,  1887, 

Bt  d.  appleton  and  company. 


All  rights  reserved. 


:  ••  •••  ,•, ••« 

•»•  •  v«  •  •  •!  r    •  ••      ! 


PREFATOEY. 


Theee  have  been  so  many  political  revolutions  in 
some  of  the  Sonth  American  states,  accompanied  by  cruel 
acts  of  military  despots,  that  I  fear  our  busy  people  in 
the  United  States  have  acquired  an  unfavorable  impres- 
sion of  almost  the  whole  of  South  America.  It  is  desir- 
able, however,  as  satisfying  the  demands  of  a  high  order 
of  intelligence,  that  they  should  have  discriminating  and 
correct  views  of  the  different  races  and  countries  on  their 
own  continent.  Especially  a  country  like  Brazil,  nearly 
as  large  in  territory  as  the  United  States,  peopled  by  de- 
scendants of  the  high-spirited  and  industrious  Portuguese, 
and  containing  thirteen  million  inhabitants,  is  well  worth 
knowing  by  Americans.  Our  young  Americans  in  par- 
ticular ought  to  be  encouraged  to  cultivate  a  better  knowl- 
edge of  such  foreign  countries,  both  in  the  interests  of 
trade  and  of  peace.  For  a  people  who  can  have  great 
influence  in  maintaining  peace  there  is  scarcely  any  de- 
partment of  knowledge  that  is  more  elevated.  Richard 
Cobden  wrote  a  book  to  disabuse  the  minds  of  his  coun- 
trymen of  their  delusions   and  prejudices  in  regard  to 

227707 


4:  PREFATORY. 

Kussia.  Although  I  lack  the  ability  of  that  most  clear  and 
eloquent  writer,  still  I  hope  I  may  be  able  to  present 
some  facts  in  respect  to  the  present  situation  of  Brazil 
which  will  be  both  instructive  and  entertaining  to  general 
readers.  My  object  is  to  answer  such  questions  as  an 
intelligent  American  would  be  likely  to  ask  in  regard  to 
Brazil. 

My  means  of  acquaintance  with  that  empire  are  prin- 
cipally derived  from  a  residence  of  three  years  at  Bio  de 
Janeiro,  its  capital,  while  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  Government,  during  which  period  I  made 
a  few  journeys  into  the  interior.  My  consular  office  was 
situated  in  the  busiest  part  of  the  great  commercial  city 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  its  duties  brought  me  into  frequent 
personal  intercourse  with  the  leading  business  houses  and 
with  many  of  the  best-informed  people  of  the  country. 


OOFTENTS. 


chapter  page 

Prefatory        3 

I. — Voyage  to  Brazil 7 

II. — Getting  to  Housekeeping 14 

III.— Rio  and  its  People 22 

IV. — Life  and  Manners 52 

v.— The  Emperor  of  Brazil 82 

VI. — TiJUCA — Pedra  Bonita 87 

VII. — Situation,  Resources,  and  Climate      .        .        .        .93 

VIIL— American-Brazilian  Relations 116 

IX. — A  Trip  into  the  Interior 126 

X. — ^VisiT  to  a  Coffee- Plantation 137 

XL — Public  Instruction 171 

XII. — Local  Administration 185 

XIIL— Parliamentary  Government 194 

XIV. — Brazilian  Literature 216 

XV. — Agriculture  and  Stock-raising 241 

\XVI.— The  Amazon  Valley 262 

XVII.— Beasts  of  Prey 294 

XVIII. — Slavery  and  Emancipation 308 

XIX.— The  Religious  Orders .  330 

XX.— Public  Lands  and  Immigration 341 


BRAZIL: 

ITS  CONDITIO]^  Al^U  PKOSPEOTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

VOYAGE   TO   BEAZIL. 

At  the  time  I  left  the  United  States  for  Brazil,  in 
the  summer  of  1882,  there  was  no  regular  line  of  passen- 
ger-steamers running  between  I^ew  York  and  Kio  de 
Janeiro.  The  old  American  line  had  ceased,  and  the 
present  one  had  not  commenced.  The  consequence  was, 
that  our  voyage  to  Brazil  was  by  the  way  of  Europe, 
while  the  voyage  home  was  from  Bio  to  New  York  on 
one  of  the  new  American  steamers.  I  embarked  with 
my  wife  and  daughter  on  the  ]S"orth-German  Lloyd's 
steamship  Oder,  and,  after  a  pleasant  passage,  landed  at 
Southampton,  whence  we  went  by  steamer  to  Havre,  and 
thence  overland  to  Lisbon,  stopping  a  few  days  at  Paris, 
Madrid,  and  Lisbon.  It  was  particularly  interesting  to 
visit  Portugal  before  going  to  the  empire  which  it  had 
planted.  "We  had  been  so  well  pleased  with  the  German 
steamer,  that  we  took  one  of  the  same  company's  ships 
for  the  passage  from  Lisbon  to  Bio,  the  Graf  Bismarck, 
Captain   Thallenhorst  commanding,  on  which  we  em- 


8  '''''if6ij2iLV'm'o6N*6rao]sr  and  prospects. 

barked  out  in  the  calm  waters  of  the  Tagus  the  lovely 
afternoon  of  August  5th.  We  made  the  voyage  to  Kio  in 
twenty-one  days,  and  were  favored  with  pleasant  weather 
and  a  comparatively  smooth  sea  all  the  way.  There 
were  only  three  or  four  cabin  -  passengers  besides  our- 
selves, and  we  were  favored  with  an  abundance  of  room. 
The  fourth  day  out  we  landed  at  one  of  the  Canary  Isl- 
ands, upon  which  there  is  very  grand  mountain  scenery. 
"We  spent  a  short  time  in  its  capital  city,  Santa  Cruz, 
where  the  steamer  took  upward  of  a  hundred  immigrant 
passengers  bound  for  one  of  the  Kiver  Plate  countries. 
August  22d,  we  landed  and  spent  about  half  a  day  at 
Bahia,  Brazil's  capital  in  early  colonial  times,  and  now 
her  second  city.  It  has  a  striking  situation  on  red  land, 
which  rises  abruptly  a  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the 
water.  A  small  park  overlooking  the  sea,  and  fiUed  with 
tall  palms  and  large  shade- trees,  is  one  of  the  first  objects 
that  arrest  attention  in  approaching  the  city  from  the 
north.  As  we  proceeded  down  the  Brazilian  coast,  a  range 
of  green  mountains  some  distance  inland  could  frequently 
be  seen.  From  time  to  time,  as  we  got  a  little  nearer  land, 
cultivated  plantations  were  visible.  Nearer  the  sea  were 
low  hills,  with  a  strip  of  white  sand  always  bordering 
the  shore.  We  arrived  off  Kio  de  Janeiro  before  sun- 
rise, Saturday,  August  26th,  and,  being  awakened  for  the 
purpose,  arose  and  went  to  the  captain's  bridge  to  observe 
the  scenery  on  entering  the  port.  It  was  very  picturesque 
and  pleasing,  though  the  more  distant  mountains  were 
somewhat  obscured  by  clouds.  The  granite  cone,  called 
the  Sugar-Loaf,  was  among  the  nearest  prominent  objects. 
A  chain  of  irregular  mountains  seemed  to  inclose  the  har- 
bor of  Eio,  and  from  one  point  of  view  the  captain  pointed 
out  how  the  summits  formed  the  figure  of  a  man  repos- 


VOYAGE  TO   BRAZIL.  9 

iiig,  of  wliicli,  if  I  recoEect  right,  the  Sugar-Loaf  was  the 
feet.  The  scenery,  though  not  of  the  sublime  cast  of 
towering  mountains,  was,  nevertheless,  striking.  On  en- 
tering the  ample  harbor  the  scene  continually  increased 
in  interest  until  the  anchor  was  dropped.  An  extensive 
city,  sparkling  in  the  morning  sun,  lay  stretched  at  great 
length  along  the  scalloped  shore  of  the  bay,  covering  sev- 
eral hills  in  its  limits,  and  extending  to  the  very  slopes 
of  the  tree-covered  mountains.  Botaf ogo  Bay,  the  Gloria 
Hill,  and  the  church  on  its  top,  Santa  Theresa  Hill,  the 
Public  Garden,  the  towers  of  the  Cathedral — these  were 
some  of  the  objects  that  were  first  pointed  out  to  us. 
There,  sure  enough,  was  Kio  de  Janeiro,  the  greatest  city 
of  South  America,  an  interesting  and  attractive  place,  no 
doubt,  yet  still  a  city  frequently  scourged  with  the  dreaded 
yellow  fever ;  there  was  the  city  which  was  to  be  our  new 
home — for  how  long  'I 

It  was  about  nine  o'clock  when  we  went  ashore.  We 
first  walked  to  the  office  of  the  steamship  company,  and 
from  there  took  a  carriage  to  our  hotel,  feeling,  of  course, 
grateful  for  having  accomplished  so  long  a  journey  in 
safety. 

There  had  been  nothing  of  special  interest  in  our 
passage  from  Lisbon.  I  was  usually  awakened  before 
sunrise  every  morning  by  the  seamen  washing  off  the 
deck,  and  hearing  the  pigs,  which  were  carried  for  sub- 
sistence, scampering  about  on  deck  at  the  same  time,  a 
freedom  they  had  while  their  pens  were  being  washed. 
Our  meals  were  not  taken  down-stairs  in  the  cabin,  but  in 
a  pleasant  room  forward  opening  from  the  deck.  Break-  y^ 
fast  was  at  eight  o'clock,  consisting  of  a  good  beefsteak, 
fried  potatoes,  good  coffee  or  tea,  and  bread  and  fresh 
eggs  ;  dinner  at  2  p.  m.  and  tea  at  about  dark.     The  after- 


10      BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

deck  was  ample  for  walking,  or  pitcMng  quoits,  and  was 
protected  from  the  sun  by  an  awning.  Over  the  room 
where  we  ate  was  also  a  small  deck,  with  awning,  near 
to  and  about  on  a  level  with  the  officers'  bridge,  and 
which  was  a  favorite  place  for  sitting  and  reading  or 
lounging,  as  the  prospect  from  it  was  extensive  and  the 
atmosphere  agreeable.  There  were  a  few  nights  or  parts 
of  nights  when  the  heat  was  oppressive  in  our  state-rooms. 
We  could  generally,  however,  keep  the  round  small  win- 
dow in  each  state-room  open  or  partly  open,  but  it  v/as 
sometimes  hazardous  to  do  so.  One  night,  when  I  had 
left  the  window  open  in  my  room,  a  wave  came  against 
the  ship,  dashing  fully  two  buckets  of  water  in  upon  me 
as  I  was  lying  in  my  berth  sound  asleep.  Another  night 
one  of  our  Em-opean  fellow-passengers  had  a  similar  ex- 
perience. 

The  crew  was  composed  of  steady,  sensible  Germans, 
including  some  boys  who  have  very  good  prospects,  as,  by 
sticking  to  their  profession,  and  taking  pains  to  acquire 
theoretical  as  well  as  practical  knowledge  of  navigation, 
they  may  look  forward  some  day  to  become  masters  of 
just  such  a  steamship  as  the  Bismarck.  In  crossing  the 
equator  a  part  of  an  afternoon  is  devoted  to  a  bit  of  frolic 
to  initiate  such  seamen  as  are  crossing  the  line  for  the 
first  time.  On  this  occasion  on  our  steamer  there  was  a 
grotesque  procession,  after  which  the  candidates  were 
subjected  to  a  mock  operation  of  shaving,  and,  by  some 
slip  of  their  seat,  found  themselves  sprawling  in  a  tub  of 
water.  The  whole  concluded  by  the  captain  treating  all 
hands  to  beer.  The  only  dispute  or  quarrel,  and  that 
not  serious,  which  occurred  on  the  voyage,  was  between  a 
couple  of  the  seamen  after  this  hour  or  so  of  fun. 

Competent  ship-masters  agree  that  the  voyage  between 


VOYAGE  TO  BRAZIL.  H 

the  United  States  and  Brazil  is  easy  and  pleasant  as  com- 
pared with  that  across  the  Korth  Atlantic.  As  Captain 
Beers  says,  "it  is  a  yacht-excursion."  In  coming  from 
^ew  York  to  Kio  de  Janeiro  and  returning,  the  weather 
and  sea  as  a  rule  are  favorable,  a  fact  important  both  to 
merchants  and  to  those  who  travel  for  recreation  and  in- 
stiniction. 

The  United  States  and  Brazil  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany began  running  their  line  of  new  passenger-steam- 
ships between  Kew  York  and  Kio  de  Janeiro  in  1883; 
and  in  October,  1886,  commenced  the  extension  of 
their  line  to  Montevideo  with  their  new  steamship  AUi- 
anca.  Leaving  their  dock  at  Brooklyn,  these  steamers 
proceed  on  every  voyage  to  Newport  News,  Virginia, 
where  they  take  on  their  supply  of  coal  and  a  cargo  of 
flour,  and  leave  the  latter  place  the  evening  of  the  third 
day  after  starting  from  Brooklyn.  They  pass  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  west  of  the  Bermudas,  and  in  the 
course  of  five  days  arrive  in  the  fine  harbor  of  the  green 
mountain-island  of  St.  Thomas — an  island  which  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  bought  of  Denmark  by  a  treaty  which  the 
Senate  refused  to  ratify.  There,  a  hundred  black  people, 
young  and  old,  male  and  female,  bring  coal  aboard  the 
ship  in  baskets,  which  they  carry  on  their  heads,  working 
almost  on  the  jump.  Peddlers  of  coral  hover  about  the 
ship  in  their  boats;  also,  youthful  swimmers,  who,  to 
make  a  little  money  and  divert  the  passengers,  will  dive 
and  bring  up  any  small  silver  coin  that  the  latter  may  be 
wilUng  to  throw  into  the  water. 

From  St.  Thomas  the  steamer  is  a  little  less  than  two 
days  in  reaching  Barbadoes,  a  beautiful  undulating  and 
exceedingly  fertile  island,  covered  with  plantations  of 
sugar-cane  and  numerously  dotted  with  dwellings.    It  is 


12      BEAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

a  favorite  resort  for  visitors,  has  a  good  modern  hotel, 
and  living  on  the  island  is  very  cheap.  From  Barbadoes 
to  Pard,  Brazil's  rising  city  of  the  Amazon  Yalley,  occu- 
pies from  four  to  five  days.  Passengers  will  generally 
wish  to  visit  this  and  the  other  Brazilian  cities  at  which 
the  steamer  calls,  but  before  doing  so  it  may  be  best  to 
consult  the  surgeon  on  board.  The  steamer  usually  runs 
from  Para  to  Maranham  in  a  day  and  a  half ;  from  Ma- 
ranham  to  Pernambuco,  an  important  city  and  center  of 
the  sugar-trade,  in  three  and  a  half  days ;  from  Pernambuco 
to  Bahia,  in  two  and  a  half  days  ;  and  from  Bahia  to  Eio 
de  Janeiro,  in  three  days.  If  you  are  fond  of  oranges, 
always  lay  in  a  supply  at  Bahia.  'No  good  ones  are  to  be 
had  at  the  ports  north  of  Bahia.  From  Kio  to  Kew  York 
there  are  British  steamships  leaving  weekly,  some  of 
which  have  good  passenger  accommodations.  A  person 
of  leisure,  or  traveling  for  health,  would  find  a  passage 
pleasant  on  some  of  the  saihng-packets  which  run  regu- 
larly between  Baltimore  and  Eio,  a  few  of  which  some- 
times make  four  round  voyages  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
A  sailing-vessel  leaving  one  of  our  Atlantic  ports, 
bound  for  Brazil,  usually  steers  east  a  great  distance  to  get 
into  the  trade-winds  blowing  from  the  northeast  to  the 
southwest.  She  goes  east  for  this  purpose  nearly  half- 
way across  the  Atlantic,  then  southeasterly  to  about  the 
twenty-eighth  degree  of  latitude ;  from  there  slie  is  car- 
ried along  by  the  northeast  trade-wind  to  the  tenth  or  fifth 
degree  of  latitude  north  of  the  equator,  according  to  the 
season,  after  which  there  are  light,  variable  winds  till 
about  the  second  degree  north  of  the  equator,  when  the 
southeast  trade-winds  may  be  expected,  and  which  take 
the  vessel  to  about  the  nineteenth  degree  of  latitude  south 
of  the  equator ;  after  which  there  are  variable  winds  to 


VOYAGE  TO  BRAZIL.  13 

Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  average  crossing  of  the  equator  is 
at  longitude  32°  west. 

As  the  "  torrid  zone  "  extends  some  twenty-three  de- 
grees on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  as  the  common  un- 
derstanding of  the  word  ^'  torrid  "  is  violent  heat,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  people  have  a  wrong  impression  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  weather  at  sea  in  the  neighborhood  of  and 
even  under  the  equator.  It  is  not  oppressively  hot.  On 
the  contrary,  there  is  generally  a  refreshing  breeze,  and 
the  nights  are  often  cool  enough  for  passengers  to  re- 
quire a  blanket  for  cover  in  their  berths  while  sleeping. 

I  believe  there  is  nothing  particularly  noteworthy  as 
to  the  phenomena  in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator  and 
through  the  ''  torrid  "  zone,  except  that  the  weather  may 
toward  evening  be  habitually  cloudy  and  look  threatening, 
and  soon  clear  up  and  become  bright  starlight.  The 
water  when  agitated  displays  at  night  much  brilliant  phos- 
phorescent light.  During  the  day  the  sight  of  one  or 
two  sailing-vessels  at  a  distance,  also  the  frequently  seen 
"  flying-lish/'  are  about  all  that  would  interrupt  the  mo- 
notony. Going  south  from  the  equator,  say  in  August,  one 
soon  misses  the  "  Great  Dipper."  The  Southern  Cross,  a 
constellation  of  but  four  stars,  is  then  seen  in  the  southern 
heavens  early  in  the  evening.  The  Scorpion  is  directly 
overhead,  and  at  two  or  three  o'clock  in  the  morning 
Orion  is  visible  just  above  the  eastern  horizon.  The  dis- 
tance from  New  York  to  Kio  de  Janeiro  direct  is  five 
thousand  miles;  consequently  steamships  that  average 
twelve  miles  an  hour,  a  reasonable  speed,  would  make  the 
voyage  in  seventeen  days  ;  but,  calling  as  they  usually  do 
at  several  intermediate  ports,  the  time  is  extended  five  or 
six  days. 


CHAPTEK  II. 

GETTING  TO   HOUSEKEEPING. 

Caeson's  English  Hotel,  at  whicli  we  stopped,  is 
handily  located  on  the  Eua  Catete,  the  street-cars  pass- 
ing it  every  five  minutes.  In  size  and  architecture  it  is 
unpretentious,  but  has  a  large  lawn  and  garden  in  the 
rear,  entirely  secluded  from  the  street  by  one  of  those 
high  walls  which  still  inclose  many  old  dwelling-sites.  It 
is  an  orderly  and  popular  family  hotel.  If  there  are 
lady  guests,  a  maid  taps  at  the  chamber-door  about  eight 
in  the  morning  and  hands  in  a  pot  of  black  coffee,  a 
pitcher  of  hot  milk,  some  rolls  and  butter.  This  is  ex- 
pected to  sustain  nature  till  you  are  dressed  and  come  to 
the  ordinary  eating-room,  where  breakfast  is  served  from 
nine,  or  a  little  before,  till  twelve.  The  earthen  water- 
bottle,  which  I  shall  further  along  describe,  set  on  its 
own  little  platter  and  placed  at  convenient  distances  along 
the  center  of  the  table,  forms  a  part  of  what  is  usually 
on  every  dining-table.  There  are  dishes  of  oranges  and 
bananas.  The  steak,  or  chop,  is  broiled  after  you  give 
your  order.  You  may  need  to  wait  fifteen  minutes  for 
your  breakfast ;  but  be  patient,  and  you  will  be  treated 
all  the  better.  The  sei-vants  have  been  long  in  the  house, 
and  have  been  accustomed  to  wait  on  Brazilian  magnates 
and  their  families,  who  are  usually  very  polite ;  and  if 


GETTING  TO  HOUSEKEEPING.  15 

transient  guests  are  irritable,  they  are  themselves  the 
losers. 

It  being  our  purpose  to  go  to  housekeeping  as  soon  as 
convenient  after  reaching  Rio,  one  of  the  first  things  to 
occupy  our  attention  was  to  search  for  a  suitable  house. 
We  had  got  the  impression  that,  to  be  secure  against  yel- 
low fever,  one  should  reside  on  elevated  ground — say  on 
either  the  Gloria  or  the  Santa  Theresa  Hill.  We  first 
looked,  therefore,  at  houses  on  both  these  hills,  making 
the  ascent  on  foot,  in  very  warm  weather,  several  times  to 
do  so,  and  saw  some  very  fair  houses,  commanding  a  splen- 
did view  of  the  harbor  and  the  mountain  scenery  on  the 
opposite  side,  but  they  were  so  difficult  of  access  that  we 
were  reluctant  to  take  either  one ;  and  finally  learning, 
what  I  have  since  become  satisfied  is  the  truth,  that  those 
localities  are  no  more  exempt  from  the  fever  than  some 
other  parts  of  the  city  less  elevated,  we  began  to  look 
elsewhere.  We  visited  houses  in  the  favorite  districts 
of  Sao  Christovao,  Botaf ogo,  and  Larangeiras ;  and,  finally, 
a  desirable  new  house  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  Mr. 
Eainsford,  an  old  resident  and  former  United  States 
vice-consul,  at  No.  143  Rua  das  Larangeiras,  which  I 
hired  (of  course,  unfurnished)  at  one  thousand  dollars  per 
year. 

We  had  visited  over  a  dozen  vacant  houses  altogether, 
and  in  this  way  had  obtained  information  about  the  inside 
of  Brazilian  houses  that  we  otherwise  would  not  have  had. 
What  I  saw  in  this  regard  impressed  me  that  sleeping- 
rooms  in  the  older  houses  frequently  lack  windows — mere 
dark  alcoves  being  used  for  that  purpose ;  that  the  kitch- 
ens are  very  small ;  and  that  the  quarters  for  servants  are 
either  dark  basement-rooms  under  the  principal  rooms,  or 
else  are  in  small,  detached  buildings  without  windows. 


16       BRAZIL:  ITS  COITDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

There  were  things,  sometimes,  in  sanitary  regards  that 
were  shocking. 

We  had  got  into  our  new  house  and  settled  at  house- 
keeping inside  of  three  weeks  after  our  arrival  at  Rio. 
Neither  carpets  nor  furniture  with  woolen  or  upholstered 
covers  are  common  in  Brazilian  houses,  though  there  is 
nothing  in  the  climate  to  prevent  their  use — for  moths 
are  no  more  troublesome  in  Brazil  than  in  the  United 
States ;  but  not  uncommonly  a  large  rug  is  used  to  cover 
the  middle  part  of  the  parlor-floor.  For  the  most  part, 
the  house  furniture  is  cane-seated,  with  wood-work  of  rose- 
wood, mahogany,  or  some  other  reddish-colored  wood  of 
the  country.  The  sofa  has  a  high  back,  and  is  a  neat  and 
substantial  piece  of  furniture.  Two  rows  of  about  three 
chairs  each,  facing,  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  sofa, 
forming  a  little  avenue  to  it.  The  sofa,  about  a  dozen 
chairs,  including  two  arm-chairs,  and  two  cabinets,  or 
"  dunkerquerks,"  with  marble  tops  and  mirrored  doors, 
will  cost  about  five  hundred  dollars.  This  will  answer  as 
a  specimen  for  a  part  of  the  furniture  in  houses  of  the 
middle  class.  Of  course,  rich  upholstered  furniture  is 
found  in  the  dwellings  of  the  wealthy.  In  damp  and  hot 
weather,  clothing  and  books  gather  mold,  and  should  be 
frequently  looked  after  and  exposed  to  the  sun. 

There  is  no  trouble  about  stoves  or  furnaces.  I  know 
only  one  house  in  Rio  provided  with  heating  accommo- 
dations. The  stoves  for  cooking  are  put  in  as  a  part  of 
the  house.  The  fuel  consists  of  wood  obtained  in  the  vi- 
cinity, and  comes  in  small  bundles  of  slender  split  sticks, 
three  feet  long,  each  bundle  being  about  a  foot  in  diame- 
ter. The  numerous  grocery-shops,  or  "  venders,"  furnish 
and  deliver  them;  but  they  can  generally  be  obtained 
more  economically  by  the  cart-load  from  wood-dealers. 


GETTING  TO  HOUSEKEEPING.  17 

The  majority  of  the  people  live  from  hand  to  mouth, 
and  buy  their  supplies  from  day  to  day  at  the  handiest 
'shop;  others  buy  a  month's  supply  of  groceries  from 
some  dealer  down  town.  The  bread  made  by  the  bakers 
in  Eio  is  so  good  that  no  family  thinks  of  baking  its  own 
bread.  Beef  is  bought  fresh  every  morning,  and  is  gener- 
ally good.  The  slaughter  of  beef-creatures  takes  place 
several  miles  out  of  the  city,  under  government  super- 
vision. The  meat  is  brought  into  the  city  on  the  railroad 
before  evening,  and,  just  before  dark,  great,  heavy,  closed 
wagons,  drawn  by  four  mules,  go  rumbling  through  the 
city  and  deliver  the  beef  in  quarters  at  the  numerous 
meat  shops.  By  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  retailer 
has  generally  sold  out  all  of  his  stock,  though  after  that 
a  few  pieces  may  be  seen  hanging  up  at  his  door.  Ice  is 
rather  a  dear  luxury,  though  it  is  now  manufactured  ex- 
tensively at  Rio.  Families  get  along,  however,  very  well 
without  ice,  by  cooking  their  meat  the  day  it  is  bought, 
and  keeping  the  food  in  perforated  zinc-paneled,  movable 
cupboards  —  a  most  useful  article  of  pantry  furniture, 
which  I  have  only  seen  in  Brazil. 

Fresh  pork  is  regarded  in  Rio  as  a  luxury.  The  salt 
pork  of  the  countiy  is  good,  and  comes  in  a  dry  condition 
in  heavy  rolls.  Poultry  is  sold  alive  through  fear  of  dis- 
ease. Turkeys  are  driven  in  flocks  and  peddled  at  a  high 
price ;  the  drivers,  at  a  slow  pace  and  in  a  singing  tone,  ad- 
vertising as  they  go.  There  are  numerous  cow-stables  all 
through  the  city,  and  milk  is  delivered  in  bottles  by  men 
afoot,  though  a  few  carts  are  making  a  beginning.  It  is 
also  common  to  drive  cows  around  singly  in  the  morning, 
and  to  milk  at  the  door  the  quantity  a  family  may  require. 
In  such  cases  the  calf  is  allowed  to  accompany  the  cow, 
but  is  subjected  to  a  muzzle.    This  dairy  business  appears 


18        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

to  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese ;  and  the  frequent 
sight  of  these  cows  led  about  through  the  streets  by  in- 
nocent, country-looking  youths,  in  some  cases  quite  fresh 
from  the  valleys  of  Portugal,  gives  Kio  a  rustic  feature 
which  is  pleasant. 

Of  family  subsistence,  more  things  are  of  foreign  pro- 
duction than  would,  at  first  thought,  be  supposed.  Butter 
comes  in  tin  cans  from  Denmark,  or  some  other  foreign 
country ;  lard  from  the  United  States ;  potatoes  and  on- 
ions from  Portugal.  Neither  green  corn,  green  peas,  nor 
tomatoes  to  any  extent,  are  found  in  the  Eio  market. 
There  is  a  fair  supply  of  several  kinds  of  dehcate  sea-fish, 
and  the  best  way  to  procure  them  is  to  go  direct  to  the 
principal  market,  rather  than  depend  on  fish-peddlers, 
whose  presence  can  often  be  known  by  the  sense  of  smell. 
The  mero,  one  of  the  best,  is  a  thick  fish  with  black  skin, 
without  scales,  costing  forty  cents  a  pound,  and  grows 
to  the  size  of  two  hundred  pounds.  The  badejo  is  an- 
other dark-skinned  fish,  without  scales,  and  attains  a 
weight  of  sixty  pounds.  The  roballo  has  scales  of  the 
color  of  the  shad,  a  black  stripe  on  each  side,  and  looks 
like  our  salt-water  striped  bass;  its  ordinary  weight  is 
about  seven  pounds.  The  curvina  is  reddish-colored,  has 
thick,  hard  scales,  which  have  to  be  shaved  oif,  with  an 
outer  skin,  and  weighs  about  six  pounds.  This,  and  the 
vermelho,  are  similar  to  the  red  snapper  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  in  appearance,  and  in  the  dehcacy  and  firmness  of 
their  flesh.  Nearly  all  the  fish  are  caught  in  the  Bay  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  into  which  they  come  from  the  sea,  though 
some  are  taken  outside  as  far  as  Cape  Frio,  eighteen  hours 
distant  by  sail.  The  mero  and  badejo  are  caught  only 
with  the  hook. 

The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  in  use, 


GETTING  TO  HOUSEKEEPING.  19 

and  meat,  fish,  and  groceries  are  bought  by  the  kilogramme 
of  two  and  twenty  hundredths  pounds.  The  unit  for  the 
measure  of  money  is  the  milreis — thousand  reis — on  the 
same  principle  as  if  we  in  the  United  States  were  to  indi- 
cate our  money  in  mills,  and  in  writing  a  dollar  should 
say  one  thousand  mills.  In  figures  the  Brazilians  write  a 
milreis  thus,  1$000.  Five  hundred  reis,  or  half  a  milreis, 
they  write  $500,  and  a  conto — one  thousand  milreis — 
l,000fD00.  There  are  nickel  one  hundred  and  two  hun- 
dred reis-pieces,  the  first  worth  about  four  cents  and  the 
latter  eight  cents.  There  are  also  copper  pieces  of  which 
five  are  equal  to  a  hundred  reis.  The  Brazilian  milreis  in 
gold  has  the  value  of  fifty-four  and  six  tenths  cents.  But 
neither  gold  nor  silver  is  in  circulation.  All  of  the  money 
consists  of  irredeemable  legal-tender  Government  notes 
which  have  for  years  been  continually  depreciating  in 
value  till  in  1885  the  milreis,  in  paper,  was  worth  only 
about  thirty-six  cents.  It  rose  to  the  value  of  forty  cents 
the  first  half  of  1886.  This  sort  of  money  in  a  country 
affects  business  just  on  the  same  principle  as  if  the  length 
of  the  yardstick  were  to  change  from  week  to  week. 

The  average  wages  of  servants  in  good  families  are 
about  forty-five  milreis,  say  sixteen  dollars,  per  month. 
Some  of  the  best  servants  are  slaves,  who  are  owned  and 
have  been  trained  by  people  of  the  upper  class.  The 
wages  of  such  servants  all  go  to  the  owner.  The  Portu- 
guese generally  make  industrious  and  reliable  servants,  and 
are  very  commonly  employed  in  such  capacity.  They  do 
not  expect  to  make  or  receive  many  visits ;  and  they  are 
usually  bright,  cheerful,  and  respectful.  As  the  halls, 
stairs,  and  floors,  especially  in  dining-rooms,  are  uncar- 
peted,  there  is  considerable  scrubbing  to  be  done,  and  that 
is  done  by  men  on  their  knees.     A  man-servant  of  some 


20        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

of  the  wealthier  families  will  rise  daily  as  early  as  five 
and  go  to  the  market,  two  miles  distant,  to  buy  what  is 
needed  for  the  table  in  the  way  of  fish,  meat,  vegetables, 
and  fruit.  But,  ordinarily,  your  man-servant  rises  at  six, 
and  in  a  pair  of  slip-shod  sHppers  goes  to  the  nearest  meat- 
shop  for  the  day's  supply ;  while  the  meat  is  being  cut,  he 
steps  into  the  shop  of  the  adjoining  grocer  and  buys  a 
morning  journal,  the  columns  of  which  he  enjoys  reading 
as  much  as  any  one.  If  he  feels  like  it,  he  indulges  in  a 
small  glass  of  the  spirits  of  the  country.  On  his  return 
to  the  house,  in  the  course  of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  he 
blacks  your  boots,  sweeps  the  dining-room  and  hall,  per- 
haps washes  off  the  steps  and  sidewalk  in  front,  sets  the 
table  for  breakfast,  cleans  the  parrot-cage,  and  generally 
continues  occupied  through  the  day,  taking  a  few  whiffs 
from  a  cigarette  at  intervals. 

There  is  in  common  use  in  Brazil,  as  well  as  in  Span- 
ish America  and  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  an  earthen  bottle 
(called  in  Brazil  moringue)  for  holding  drinking-water, 
which  is  very  serviceable,  and  would  form  a  most  useful 
addition  to  American  household  utensils  in  warm  weather, 
as  it  keeps  water  fresh  and  cool  a  long  time.  It  is  like- 
wise a  very  picturesque  object,  being  in  the  form  of  an 
ancient  Greek  pattern,  of  which  a  specimen,  all  but  the 
stopper,  is  given  in  Plate  XXYIII,  page  234,  of  Eastlake's 
"  Household  Taste,"  under  the  head  of  "  Greek  toilet- 
ware." The  lower  part  of  this  bottle  is  bulbous  in  form, 
about  eight  inches  in  diameter,  the  neck  four  or  five 
inches  long,  so  as  to  be  conveniently  grasped  by  the  hand, 
and  one  and  a  half  inch  in  diameter  at  the  mouth.  The 
stopper  is  hollow,  with  a  neat  circular  cap  top.  The  bot- 
tom is  fiat,  and  it  is  usually  set  on  a  small  plate  of  the 
same  material — the  whole  of  a  deep  Indian-red  color. 


GETTING  TO  HOUSEKEEPING.  21 

The  quality  of  being  unglazed  gives  it  the  power  to  keep 
water  cool.  Being  used  also  with  a  stopper,  as  it  always 
should  be,  it  prevents  the  water  from  absorbing  the  im- 
purities of  the  atmosphere ;  it  also  excludes  insects ;  and 
for  these  reasons,  and  because  it  keeps  the  water  cool,  it 
would  be  a  vast  improvement  on  our  open  pitchers.  In 
the  sick-chamber  at  night  it  would  prove  especially  valu- 
able. Its  introduction  into  our  country  would  also  tend 
to  do  away  with  the  use  of  ice-water.  These  bottles  are 
aU  made  by  hand,  and  beautifully  shaped  by  the  eye,  from 
a  lump  of  moist  and  prepared  clay,  while  revolving  rap- 
idly on  a  little  table  which  the  workman  keeps  in  motion 
by  a  crank  worked  with  his  foot.  They  are  retailed  singly, 
with  the  plate,  at  less  than  fifty  cents.  Glazed  and  fancy 
painted  bottles  are  often  to  be  seen  on  the  tables  of  res- 
taurants and  hotels,  but  they  do  not  keep  the  water  cool, 
nor  are  they  as  picturesque  as  the  unglazed  bottles.  Ko 
family  undertakes  to  do  without  the  latter. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EIO   AND   ITS   PEOPLE. 

"While  the  first  rude  liuts  were  being  built  where 
!N'ew  York  now  stands,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  commercial 
and  political  capital  of  Brazil,  had  been  settled  over  fifty 
years.  It  is  situated  as  far  south  as  Havana  is  north  of 
the  equator,  and  has  now  a  population  of  nearly  half  a 
million,  it  being  the  largest  city,  outside  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  American  Continent.  It  is  the  seat  of  haK 
the  foreign  commerce  of  the  empire,  has  a  navy-yard, 
arsenal,  several  ship-yards,  cotton  -  mills,  foundries,  and 
other  manufactures.  If  one  of  our  larger  ships  of  war 
needed  repairs  while  in  the  South  Atlantic,  it  could  find 
only  at  Rio  a  sufficiently  large  dry-dock.  The  glory  of 
the  city  is  its  splendid  harbor,  four  miles  wide  by  twelve 
miles  long,  and  into  which  the  largest  ships  can  enter  with 
ease  and  He  in  safety.  The  city  is  built  on  one  side  of 
the  bay  which  forms  this  harbor,  with  wooded  and  peaked 
mountains  in  the  immediate  background,  whose  spurs 
and  foot-hills,  in  places,  press  down  almost  to  the  water's 
edge,  forming  headlands  between  which  are  smaller,  cres- 
cent-shaped bays.  The  older  part  of  the  city  is  on  low,  flat 
land,  where  the  streets  are  straight  and  narrow.  Within 
the  present  city  limits  are  twenty  hills,  some  of  which  are 
quite  prominent  and  covered  with  buildings.  The  prin- 
cipal hill  is  Santa  Theresa.     On  the  Gloria  are  a  white 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  23 

church  of  the  same  name,  and  a  few  villas  amid  scattered 
royal  palms ;  on  the  Castle  Hill  are  the  observatory  and 
shipping  telegraph  station,  while  the  Saude  Hill  is  covered 
with  old  and  cheap  dwellings.  Two  or  three  other  hills 
are  noticeable  as  the  sites  of  old  and  rather  dingy- looking 
convents.  Others,  again,  are  about  in  their  natural  state, 
clothed  with  bushes  and  trees,  though  here  and  there  are 
considerable  areas  of  green  grass.  Granite-quarrying  is 
going  on  extensively  at  the  base  and  sides  of  several  hills. 

From  the  Botanical  Garden,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Corcovado  Mountain,  around  to  the  foot  of  the  Tijuca 
Mountains,  the  distance  is  about  ten  miles,  all  of  which  is 
built  up.  The  whole  of  this  distance  can  be  traveled  in 
street-cars,  and  the  trip  would  give  one  many  interesting 
views  and  a  fair  idea  of  the  city.  Another  interesting 
ride  on  the  street-cars  would  be  to  Ponte  Caju,  and  past 
the  cemetery  of  that  name.  It  is  a  promontory,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  Emperor  has  his  hunting-park,  but  which, 
I  imagine,  he  seldom  visits.  A  still  more  interesting  trip 
on  the  street-cars  is  up  the  inclined  plane  in  cars  pulled 
by  a  cable  and  stationary  engine  on  the  Santa  Theresa  Hill, 
and  to  the  new  reservoir,  the  view  from  which  is  fine. 

The  best  view  of  Eio  and  its  surroundings  is  obtained 
from  the  top  of  the  Corcovado  Mountain,  two  thousand 
feet  high,  situated  about  five  miles  from  the  custom- 
house. Though  connected  with  the  Tijuca  group  of 
mountains,  among  which  are  some  higher  peaks,  it  is  easily 
distinguished  by  its  peculiar  form.  The  side  toward  the 
sea  is  a  precipitous  column  of  rock  for  half  the  distance 
down  from  the  top — the  Botanical  Garden  lying  at  the 
foot.  The  opposite  side  is  gradually  sloping,  clothed 
with  forest,  and  from  some  points  of  view  is  thought  to 
look  like  the  stooping  shoulders  of  an  old  man — a  fancy 


24:       BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

whicli  suggested  its  name.  The  view  from  the  summit, 
taking  in  as  it  does  almost  the  whole  extended  and  irreg- 
ular area  of  the  city,  with  many  interesting  natural  ob- 
jects, is  highly  pleasing.  Like  ^N'aples,  as  seen  from  the 
hill  of  St.  Elmo,  the  level  part  of  the  city  resembles  a 
plane  of  tiled  roofs,  with  steeples  and  domes  interspersed, 
yet  studded  with  several  bright-green  hills  dotted  with 
buildings  and  trees.  In  the  direction  of  the  Emperor's 
residence,  some  six  miles  distant,  and  which  seems  to 
stand  amid  an  undulating,  verdant  park,  are  large  tracts 
of  vacant,  level,  and  grass-covered  land,  showing  what  an 
extensive  area  remains  for  the  city  to  be  built  upon  far- 
ther up  the  bay.  Beyond  these  in  the  distance  are  to  be 
seen  the  Organ  and  Petropolis  Mountains,  though  they 
are  frequently  obscured  by  the  clouds.  The  blue  Atlan- 
tic, visible  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  the  surf  rolling 
over  white  beaches  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  the  few 
scattered  islands  near  the  shore,  the  Sugar-Loaf  and  other 
prominent  heights  near  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  the 
capacious  harbor  itself  with  its  numerous  vessels,  the  old 
city  of  Nictheroy  on  the  opposite  side — these  are  some  of 
the  many  objects  upon  which  the  eye  lingers.  A  rail- 
way for  most  of  the  way  up  was  opened  in  the  latter  part 
of  1884,  and  completed  to  the  top  the  next  year  ;  so  that 
now,  by  taking  the  Larangeiras  street-car  and  the  new 
railway  connecting  therewith,  one  can  get  from  the  heart 
of  the  city  to  the  summit  in  an  hour.  The  area  on  the 
summit  is  about  a  fifth  of  an  acre,  all  granite,  and  is 
inclosed  by  a  firm  concrete  wall.  At  Paineiras,  two 
thu'ds  of  the  way  up,  is  a  fashionable  restaurant  hotel. 

Is  Kio  built  of  wood,  of  brick,  or  of  marble  ?  Keither. 
It  is,  however,  massively  built.  The  walls  of  the  build- 
ings are  concrete,  formed  of  small  pieces  of  split  stone, 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  25 

mortar,  and  an  occasional  layer  of  brick,  are  usually  two 
feet  thick,  and  in  some  of  the  older  public  buildings  even 
thicker.  The  color  of  the  walls  is  frequently  wliite,  some- 
times a  brilliant  blue,  oHve-green,  or  a  light  red.  The 
roofs,  four-sided,  of  the  hip  style,  are  all  covered  with 
thick,  red,  oval  tiles,  and,  there  being  no  chimneys,  their 
aspect  is  dull.  To  relieve  this,  the  more  genteel  houses 
have  either  a  balustrade  or  stuccoed  wall  around  the 
roofs,  with  statues,  vases,  or  other  figures  on  the  corners. 
The  stories  and  windows  are  high.  Balconies  are  common, 
with  smooth  granite  bottoms,  sculptured  underneath,  be- 
ing composed  of  large  blocks  extending  through  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  and  lending  strength  as  well  as  ornament 
to  the  edifice.  The  windows  in  the  modern  buildings 
open  door-fashion,  and  are  well  adapted  to  the  climate. 
They  are  very  securely  fastened  at  top  and  bottom  by 
simply  one  tmTi  of  the  handle  of  an  iron  bolt.  Windows 
in  the  lower  stories  have  strong  wooden  folding  shutters 
inside.  In  chamber-windows  the  glass  part  opens  inward 
on  hinges,  with  blinds  opening  outward.  The  trimmings, 
such  as  window-caps,  door  and  window  facings,  are  of 
smooth  granite — the  handsome  black  and  white  granite  so 
abundant  at  Kio — often  perfectly  arched,  and  lend  an  as- 
pect of  durability  as  well  as  of  ornament  to  the  building. 
The  foundation-walls,  to  the  height  of  two  feet  or  more, 
are  of  granite.  In  some  of  the  stuccoed  buildings  almost 
too  much  expense  seems  to  have  been  devoted  to  outside 
show.  Many  houses  are  in  imitation  of  reddish  marble 
and  very  handsome.  Some  of  the  inside  shutters,  of 
black  walnut,  or  those  painted  white  with  gilt  borders, 
show  to  advantage  through  windows  of  plate-glass.  There 
is  not  much  display  of  curtains.  The  front  sides  of  some 
of  the  older  buildings  are  wholly  or  partly  covered  with 


26        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

flat  porcelain  tiles,  generally  of  blue  color,  like  what  may 
be  seen  in  Lisbon.  There  is  but  one  marble  building  in 
Kio,  and  that  is  a  sumptuous  private  mansion  of  reddish 
Italian  marble,  with  splendid  grounds  extending  down  to 
the  water,  and  singularly  called  the  "  Palace  of  Tears."  The 
Library  building  of  the  Portuguese  colony,  now  in  course 
of  erection,  is  of  white  stone  from  Portugal  and  of  elabo- 
rate Gothic  architecture.  The  new  Merchants'  Exchange 
is  of  granite  only  in  the  first  story,  the  upper  part  being 
of  stucco.  The  fronts  of  some  of  the  churches  are  of 
light-colored  imported  stone.  The  Mint  is  a  neat  build- 
ing, with  Doric  granite  pillars  ;  the  Marine  Hospital  (Mise- 
ricordia)  is  a  stately  edifice,  with  a  colonnade  of  imposing 
granite  pillars,  fronting  on  the  water.  The  Bank  of 
Brazil  is  a  fine  granite  structure  ;  likewise  the  new  Medi- 
cal School.  So,  also,  the  Cathedral  has  a  high  and  hand- 
some dome.  But  generally  the  public  buildings  and 
churches  are  plain.  The  Imperial  Palace  is  simply  re- 
spectable, yet  has  a  lovely  situation. 

The  fashionable  private  residences  are  in  those  parts 
of  the  city  known  as  Larangeiras  and  Botafogo,  also  to 
some  extent  in  Sao  Christovao,  each  about  three  miles 
from  the  business  center,  and  reached  by  street-cars.  Of 
these  localities  Larangeiras  is  the  more  elevated.  The 
houses  of  the  wealthy  are  mostly  separate,  standing  in 
delightful  grounds,  amid  neatly  kept  lawns,  flower-beds, 
shrubbery  of  various  colors,  different  varieties  of  trees, 
including  often  some  species  of  dwarf  palm,  and  groups 
of  the  clustered,  small-stemmed  palm  of  Para.  Some- 
times there  is  a  row  of  royal  palms  in  front  of  the  house, 
or  there  may  be  an  avenue  of  these  palms  leading  to  the 
house.  They  are  seventy  to  eighty  feet  high,  but  seem 
much  taller,  with  tops  like  gigantic  ostrich-plumes  and 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  27 

stems  perfectly  smootli  and  symmetrical — the  most  strik- 
ing tree  of  the  tropics.  The  grounds  of  these  houses  are 
inclosed  by  an  iron  fence  consisting  of  perpendicular  ar- 
row- or  spear-pointed  rods  set  upon  a  substantial  wall  of 
smooth  granite,  the  whole  about  twelve  feet  high.  But 
the  most  characteristic,  and,  I  think,  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive features  of  the  surroundings  are  the  gate-piUars 
at  the  main  driveway  or  entrance  from  the  street.  The 
gates  themselves  are  of  iron  rods,  but  the  pillars  are  often 
beautifully  proportioned  shafts  of  sculptured  granite,  sur- 
mounted by  graceful  capitals,  on  which  rests  a  ball  of  the 
same  material.  More  commonly  the  gate-pillars  are  of 
masonry,  two  or  three  feet  thick  and  twelve  to  fifteen 
feet  high,  and  sometimes  surmounted  by  a  vase  contain- 
ing the  gilt-bordered  cactus,  or  by  a  figure  of  a  Hon,  a 
big  pineapple,  or  a  small  statue.  ]S"ot  unusually  they,  as 
well  as  the  fence,  are  covered  with  a  thick  mat  of  closely 
trimmed  myrtle,  or  with  vines  bearing  brilliant  flowers. 
The  hollyhock,  the  begonia,  the  oleander,  the  red-flow- 
ered eusibius  of  Mexico,  and  many  other  plants,  in  their 
seasons  of  bloom  attract  attention  in  these  various  inclos- 
ures.  Often  the  entrance  to  the  house  is  at  the  side,  and, 
instead  of  there  being  much  gTound  in  front,  there  will  be 
a  narrow  strip  extending  on  one  side  of  the  house  a  long 
distance  to  the  rear  and  well  stocked  with  orange-trees  and 
shrubbery.  One  may  ride  in  the  open  street-cars  by  some 
of  the  finer  of  these  private  residences  and  grounds  daily 
the  year  round,  and  look  upon  their  bright  and  cheerful 
aspect  with  undiminished  pleasure. 

Rio  has  gathered  a  variety  of  beautiful  flowering  trees 
from  different  parts  of  the  tropical  world.  There  are 
several  large  and  tall  ones,  some  bearing  purple  flowers, 
others  yellow  flowers,  whose  names  I  do  not  know ;  and 


28       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITIO JT  AND  PEOSPECTS. 

I  presume  one  reason  why  so  few  people  at  Rio  know  tlie 
names  of  tlie  trees  is  because  the  species  are  not  native. 
Tlie  flambeau,  or  torch-tree,  bearing  scarlet  blossoms  in 
December,  is  becoming  common  as  a  shade-tree.  The 
large  -  leaf  ed  chajpeo  do  sul,  or  umbrella-tree,  has  been 
planted  for  shade  in  many  of  the  streets.  A  splendid 
tall  tree,  with  small  and  very  dark  green  leaves,  bearing 
large  red  flowers  in  August  and  September — the  Espar- 
todia  excelsa  of  Australia — may  be  seen  in  a  few  private 
grounds  and  in  the  Public  Garden.  The  mango  is  a  large 
native  tree,  very  common,  and  at  a  distance  resembles  a 
spreading  oak  ;  it  puts  forth  russet-colored  flowers  in  July. 
The  tall,  thick,  yet  graceful  clusters  of  bamboo,  with 
plume-like  tops  and  always  dark  green,  are  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  vegetation.  A  large  and  tall  shade-tree, 
bearing  nuts,  with  leaves  like  those  of  the  lilac,  and  which 
small  birds  love  to  haunt,  is  rather  common.  In  the  out- 
skirts of  the  city  around  the  cabins  of  the  poor  are  plen- 
tiful thickets  of  the  broad-leaved  banana.  As  a  whole,  it 
is  a  vegetation  that  craves  and  is  favored  by  an  abundance 
of  sunshine. 

The  Public  Garden,  containing  about  eight  acres  ;  the 
Park  of  the  Constitution,  still  larger,  and  containing  a 
fine  bronze  statue  of  the  Emperor's  father,  surrounded  by 
groups  of  aborigines  of  heroic  size ;  and  the  Park  of  Accla- 
mation, containing  about  forty  acres,  are  in  the  middle  part 
of  the  city,  and  well  laid  out.  In  the  older  and  lower  por- 
tions of  Eio  the  streets  are  very  narrow ;  and  the  sidewalks, 
which  are  scarcely  wide  enough  for  two  to  go  abreast,  are 
raised  but  an  inch  or  two  above  the  street  pavement.  The 
foot-boards  on  the  sides  of  some  of  the  street-cars  overlap 
these  sidewalks  a  little,  and  frequently  the  wheels  of  heavy 
teams  driving  at  a  rapid  pace  invade  them,  compelling 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  29 

people  on  foot  to  dodge  into  a  sliop-door  to  escape  being 
run  over.  Tliese  narrow  streets  are  the  only  thorough- 
fares of  commerce ;  and  when  the  export  trade  is  active, 
and  great  cargoes  of  coffee  destined  to  Europe  and  the 
United  States  are  being  moved  through  them  at  reckless 
speed,  the  noise  and  din  of  the  long  trains  of  loaded  wagons 
and  of  street  freight-cars,  drawn  by  mules,  with  the  yell- 
ing of  excited  drivers,  are  intense.  These  narrow  streets 
are  behind  the  times,  and  altogether  unsuitable  for  the 
great  traffic  that  is  done  in  them.  Could  Eio  be  remodeled 
as  Paris  was  by  Napoleon  III,  it  would  become  one  of  the 
finest  cities  in  the  world.  The  city  throughout  is  well 
paved  with  granite  blocks,  and  is  generously  lighted  by 
gas,  the  lamps  for  which  are  kept  scrupulously  clean.  Elec- 
tric light  is  used  in  some  places.  Great  improvement  has 
been  made  in  the  past  fifteen  years,  especially  in  drainage 
and  cleanliness ;  and  improvement  is  still  the  order  of  the 
day,  though  it  is  not  so  rapid  nor  systematic  as  it  could  be 
if  there  were  some  leading  business  men's  organization  that 
could  influence  public  opinion.  An  English  corporation, 
called  the  City  Improvement  Company,  has  for  several 
years  had  a  contract  for  making  drains,  and  an  extensive 
system  of  drainage  is  in  operation  and  continually  increas- 
ing. The  pavement  of  some  of  the  older  streets  still 
slopes  a  little  to  the  center,  through  which,  during  a  heavy 
shower,  there  will  run  quite  a  brook.  Several  of  these 
streets,  including  the  much-traveled  Ouvidor,  may,  during 
a  heavy  rain,  be  impassable  by  foot-people  for  an  hour. 
There  will  be  times  when  the  only  way  to  get  across  them 
will  be  by  a  temporary  foot-bridge,  fixed  by  some  street- 
porter.  A  too  confident  jumper  will  now  and  then  land 
in  the  water,  much  to  the  amusement  of  the  by-standers. 
Though  not  subject  to  snow  blockades,  Eio  is  liable  to 


30       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

blockades  of  sand  and  earth,  washed  down  from  the  hills 
during  an  unusually  heavy  fall  of  rain.  In  1883  some  of 
the  street-cars  were  stopped  two  days  by  such  obstruction. 
The  principal  means  of  communication  are  street-cars, 
drawn  by  mules  over  very  smoothly  laid  steel  rails.  The 
pioneer  street-railway  was  to  the  Botanical  Garden,  estab- 
lished several  years  ago  by  American  enterprise.  It  ac- 
commodates the  Botafogo  and  Larangeiras  districts.  IS^atu- 
rally  the  money  for  the  undertaking  was  raised  by  the 
sale  of  the  company's  bonds,  and  from  that  fact  the  street- 
cars in  Kio  are  universally  called  "  bondes."  "  Are  you 
going  to  take  the  *  bond '  ? "  means  in  Eio,  "  xlre  you 
going  to  take  the  street-car  ?  "  The  street-railways  are 
weU  managed,  comfortable,  and  popular.  The  first-class 
cars  are  open,  yet  provided  with  leather  or  oil-cloth  cur- 
tains, to  exclude  rain  or  sun.  The  seats  of  polished  Bra- 
zil-wood or  mahogany  face  to  the  front,  and  the  backs  can 
be  swung  over  when  the  direction  is  reversed.  Each  seat 
accommodates  four  persons,  who  can  sit  very  comfortably. 
It  is  only  on  the  cheaper,  or  second-class  cars,  that  more 
than  the  regular  number  of  passengers  are  allowed  to 
crowd  in.  A  conductor  passes  along  outside  on  a  foot- 
board to  take  the  fare.  For  a  distance  of  two  miles,  or 
less,  the  fare  is  a  nickel  of  two  hundred  reis,  equivalent  to 
eight  cents.  These  first-class  cars  are  habitually  used  by 
the  wealthy,  yet  the  humblest  person  is  admitted  without 
distinction  of  color,  unless  barefooted.  So  comfortable 
are  they,  that  people,  of  an  evening,  often  take  a  ride  in 
them  for  pleasure.  They  afford  opportunity  for  noticing 
the  manners  of  the  people,  who,  as  a  rule,  are  quiet  and 
well-bred.  Of  course,  smoking  is  universally  allowed. 
Perhaps  half  the  gentlemen  on  a  street-car  in  the  morn- 
ing will  be  smoking  cigars  or  cigarettes.     Soon  after  the 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  31 

Brazilian  has  taken  liis  seat,  he  proceeds  with  great  de- 
liberation to  prepare  to  smoke.  He  takes  from  his  pocket 
a  neat  pouch  of  tobacco,  from  a  pocket-book  a  readj-cut 
cigarette-wrapper,  generally  of  corn-husk,  into  which  he 
puts  a  few  small  pinches  of  tobacco,  at  the  same  time  dis- 
tributing it  along,  and  pressing  and  rolling  it  into  proper 
form;  he  folds  the  wrapper  around  it  with  care,  then 
takes  from  another  pocket  a  little  box  of  explosive  match- 
es, lights  his  cigarette,  and  proceeds  to  smoke.  He  is  in 
no  hurry  about  anything.  Perhaps,  seated  next  to  him, 
is  one  of  the  many  devout  Sisters  of  Charity,  in  her  uni- 
form of  white  bonnet  and  gray,  woolen  dress,  and  who, 
by  the  movement  of  her  lips,  her  downcast  expression,  and 
slow  telling  of  her  beads,  is  saying  prayers. 

For  public  carriages  there  is  the  one-horse  chaise  (til- 
bury) and  hacks  drawn  by  two  mules.  Distances  being 
long,  the  pavements  rather  rough,  and  the  main  streets 
much  intersected  by  railways,  there  is  little  inducement  for 
private  equipages,  of  which  there  are  but  few.  Besides, 
there  is  not  in  Eio,  nor  in  its  suburbs  nearer  than  the 
mountains  of  Tijuca,  any  pleasure  driveway — a  great  lack, 
indeed,  in  respect  of  recreation  for  the  wealthy.  Proba- 
bly the  Copacabana  Beach,  which  is  right  along  the  ocean 
and  favored  with  mountain  views,  is  not  too  distant  for 
this  purpose.  "Were  a  macadamized  road  built  there,  and 
nicely  shaded  with  trees,  it  would  afford  a  driveway  as 
fine  as  that  at  Marseilles.  Such  things  will  come  in  their 
time — say  a  hundred  years  from  now,  when  the  city  will 
be  much  richer  than  it  is  at  present.  The  general  absence 
of  elegant  private  carriages,  and  the  habit  of  genteel  peo- 
ple riding  in  the  "  bondes,"  give  Rio  a  democratic  char- 
acteristic that  few  other  cities  possess.  Pich  and  poor 
travel  in  the  pleasant,  open  street-cars.     The  exceptions 


32        BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND   PROSPECTS. 

are  tlie  imperial  family  and  the  cabinet  ministers.  Each 
of  the  latter,  bj  fashion's  edict,  maintains  a  two-horse 
coupe,  which  is  generally  driven  very  fast,  and  closely  fol- 
lowed by  a  couple  of  mounted  guards. 

The  street  most  frequented  is  the  Rua  do  Ouvidor, 
extending  from  the  water  about  half  a  mile  to  the  Largo, 
or  Square  of  Sao  Francisco,  and  its  locality  should  be  well 
fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  stranger,  because  eight  or  ten 
street-railway  lines  for  the  direction  of  Sao  Christovao 
start  from  the  Square  of  Sao  Francisco,  where  it  ends,  and 
the  Botanical  Garden  and  Larangeiras  lines  leave  it  at  the 
foot  of  Rua  Gongalves  Dias.  In  the  vicinity  of  where  it 
leaves  the  water  are  the  custom-house,  post-oifice.  Mer- 
chants' Exchange,  public  market,  the  principal  banks,  and 
the  shops  of  the  money-changers.  It  is  not  much  more 
than  twenty  feet  wide,  contains  some  of  the  best  shops,  in 
whose  plate-glass  windows  are  displayed  costly  jewelry  or 
silks,  and  is  so  much  occupied  by  pedestrians  that  car- 
riages are  not  allowed  in  it  from  early  in  the  morning  till 
late  at  night ;  though  the  big  one-mule  garbage-carts,  with 
their  dust  and  smells,  detained  by  late  risers,  are  often  not 
through  their  daily  service  till  after  ten  in  the  morning. 
About  that  time  squads  of  business-men,  brokers,  and 
clerks,  who  left  their  homes  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour 
before  on  the  street-cars,  and  have  just  alighted,  are  seen 
hurrying  along  through  this  street,  with  umbrella  in  hand, 
to  their  several  places  of  business.  Besides  having  the 
best  dry-goods,  millinery,  and  jewelry  stores,  it  also  has 
some  of  the  best  and  most  frequented  coffee-restaurants. 
There,  about  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  especially  on 
Mondays,  fashionable  ladies,  often  accompanied  by  their 
daughters,  are  to  be  seen  shopping.  The  Polytechnic 
School  and  College  of  Dom  Pedro  II  being  near  one  end 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  33 

of  this  street,  it  is  a  convenient  place  for  students  to  lin- 
ger a  little  after  the  hours  of  examination.  A  person 
walking  from  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  the  Senate 
would  pass  there.  From  these  and  other  circumstances,  it 
happens  that,  from  noon  till  about  two  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, the  street  is  generally  crowded  with  people,  many 
of  whom  are  standing  in  groups  conversing.  If  there  is 
a  Cabinet  crisis  or  other  poKtical  excitement,  a  crowd  will 
be  reading  the  latest  bulletins  at  the  newspaper-offices. 
Matronly  and  richly  dressed  ladies  with  their  handsome 
children  by  their  side,  wealthy  planters  from  the  country, 
senators  and  deputies — some  of  the  most  distinguished- 
lookiug  men  of  the  empire ;  groups  of  students,  and  often 
a  Kttle  party  of  foreign  travelers  just  stopping  off  from  a 
steamship  for  a  few  hours'  stroll — these,  together  with  the 
hundreds  hastening  along  on  business  errands,  help  to 
make  up  an  animated  throng  which  is  numerous  enough 
to  impede  one's  progress.  With  the  temperature  at  90° 
Fahr.  in  the  shade,  the  heat  on  such  occasions  is  op- 
pressive, though  the  awnings  in  front  of  the  shops  keep 
off  much  of  the  sun. 

The  dress  of  the  Rio  people  differs  scarcely  any  from 
that  of  Europeans  and  Americans.  The  Brazihan  gen- 
tleman wears  the  "  stove-pipe  "  or  stiff  silk  hat,  a  double- 
breasted  frock-coat  of  black  cloth,  closely  buttoned  even 
in  the  warmest  weather,  and  trousers  of  the  same  mate- 
rial. Business  men  generally  wear  the  common  stiff  felt 
hat ;  and,  in  hot  weather,  trousers  and  vests  of  white  linen 
are  common.  Straw  hats  are  less  used  than  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  any  number  of  ready-made  clothing 
stores  at  Rio,  and  apparently  the  goods  are  about  the  same 
as  supplied  in  northern  chmes. 

The  type  of  countenance  is  Latin ;  complexion  dark, 


34       BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION   AND  PROSPECTS. 

hair  and  eyes  black,  forehead  high,  nose  prominent.  The 
eyes  are  generally  large,  and  the  expression  amiable.  La- 
dies, at  middle  age,  are  inclined  to  be  fat ;  and  while  one 
frequently  sees  tall  men  at  Kio,  the  stature  of  the  people 
is  lower  than  that  of  Americans  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
north  of  Europe.  It  is  only  in  the  Amazon  Yalley  that 
there  has  been  much  mixture  of  races. 

Sea-bathing  is  very  popular,  though  the  water  is  that 
of  the  bay,  and  not  quite  as  pure  as  the  ocean.  Some 
ladies  rise  at  four  in  the  morning,  ride  a  mile  or  two  in. 
the  street-car  to  a  beach,  bathe  in  the  salt  water,  and  then 
go  back  home  and  go  to  bed  again. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  reserve  in  the  female  character ; 
although,  as  a  rule,  Brazilians  are  informal.  Especially 
are  the  young  unmarried  ladies  of  the  higher  society  dig- 
nified and  formal.  A  single  gentleman  sittiag  near  one 
of  them  at  dinner,  even  though  he  had  been  introduced, 
would  need  to  be  cautious  in  offering  his  assistance.  If 
he  were  attentive,  for  example,  in  passing  her  different 
things  within  his  reach,  a  look  of  surprise  on  her  part 
would  be  likely  to  warn  him  that  he  was  making  himself 
too  free.  These  young  ladies  have  more  color  than  would 
perhaps  be  expected  in  a  tropical  country.  They  have 
black  eyes,  an  abundance  of  black  hair,  and  their  educa- 
tion consists  principally  of  a  knowledge  of  the  French  lan- 
guage, music,  and  embroidery. 

Macedo,  a  popular  Brazilian  author,  wrote  in  regard 
to  Brazilian  women  previous  to  1873:  ''The  ancient 
anachronic  and  oppressive  Portuguese  customs  which  com- 
pelled the  ladies  —  mothers  and  daughters — to  live  se- 
cluded from  society,  shut  up  in  the  depths  of  the  domes- 
tic hearth,  only  visible  to  relations  and  intimate  friends, 
and  only  to  be  guessed  at  in  the  churches  and  public 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  35 

places  of  amusement  through  their  rich  or  simple  man- 
tillas and  their  thick  veils — those  rude  customs  of  wom- 
an's captivity,  for  whom,  as  a  general  rule,  the  father  se- 
lected a  husband,  have  long  since  been  condemned  and 
banished  from  Brazil,  where,  in  the  capital  and  in  the 
cities,  as  regards  ladies  and  families,  the  same  formalities 
of  a  good,  accessible,  and  polished  society  are  observable 
and  practiced  as  in  the  most  civilized  cities  of  the  Old 
World." 

The  characteristic  thought  of  Brazil  is  positivism,  or 
the  science  of  society — belief  in  the  elevation  of  society 
mainly  by  the  improvement  of  morals.  The  same  style 
of  thinking  takes  the  lead  at  Rio.  But  a  great  maritime 
city,  having  constant  intercourse  with  the  outer  world, 
will  always  be  more  enlightened,  humane,  and  liberal  than 
the  average  of  people.  Hence,  the  society  of  Kio  is  more 
refined  than  that  of  Brazil  in  general.  Fashionable  so- 
ciety follows  the  style  of  the  genteel  classes  in  Europe. 
It  is  an  orderly  city,  though  not  exempt  from  those  occa- 
sional crimes  of  violence  that  occur  in  large  cities.  Two 
or  three  years  ago  there  was  something  of  a  riot,  and 
some  street-lamps  were  broken,  because  the  gas  company 
(English)  had  raised  its  charges ;  but  even  such  disturb- 
ances are  rare.  The  police  are  generally  young  men,  and, 
though  slight  in  appearance,  will  sometimes  hang  on  to  a 
powerful  offender  with  real  grit.  Some  of  the  hardest 
customers  they  have  to  deal  with  are  intoxicated  foreign 
seamen. 

A  practice  which  strikes  Americans  as  novel  is  the 
carrying  of  immense  burdens  on  the  head.  There  goes 
a  cooper's  fifteen-year-old  apprentice-lad  bearing  on  his 
head  six  empty  ten-gallon  hard-wood  kegs,  bound  in  one 
package!     There  comes  a  porter,  carrying  in  the  same 


36        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

way  an  empty  dry-goods  box  as  big  as  an  ox- cart!  Tin- 
peddlers  go  about  with  a  general  assortment  of  their  wares 
carried  in  a  big  basin  on  tlieir  heads ;  and,  like  all  ped- 
dlers at  Rio,  they  endeavor  to  draw  attention  by  continu- 
ally beating  on  some  of  their  implements.  Stout  colored 
women,  with  fine  figures,  necks  and  arms  like  bronze, 
peddle  liver  and  tripe,  which  they  carry  in  large  trays  on 
their  heads.  So,  a  porter  will  often  be  seen  carrying  in 
this  way  a  wicker  coop  containing  two  or  three  dozen  live 
chickens.  But  the  heaviest  burdens  borne  upon  the  head 
are  pianos.  It  is  quite  common  to  see  six  negroes  march- 
ing along  in  step  with  a  piano  on  their  heads,  which  they 
may  be  carrying  a  couple  of  miles.  The  porters  who  han- 
dle coffee,  and  who  carry  bags  of  it  on  their  heads  weigh- 
ing one  hundred  and  thirty-two  pounds  each,  are  generally 
Africans.  Some  of  them  are  natives  of  Africa,  and  be- 
lievers in  the  Mohammedan  religion.  They  seem  temper- 
ate and  industrious,  and,  when  unoccupied  with  heavy 
work,  sit  in  the  doorways  of  the  wholesale  houses  braid- 
ing straw  or  palm-leaf  hats.  If  there  are  a  few  near  to- 
gether, their  voices  may  frequently  be  heard  in  loud  but 
good-humored  talk.  Their  naked  feet — and  very  stubby, 
queer-looking  feet  some  of  them  are — occupy  a  certain 
part  of  the  narrow  sidewalk.  These  men  generally  appear 
to  be  upward  of  fifty  years  old,  and  sometimes  one  of  them 
will  be  seen  leaning  his  head  against  the  side  of  the  door- 
way enjoying  a  nap.  The  presence  of  so  many  humble 
laborers  occupying  the  doorways  of  many  of  the  impor- 
tant business  houses  indicates  a  humane  and  free-and-easy 
feeling. 

There,  on  the  sidewalk,  against  the  wall  of  a  church, 
sits  a  cobbler,  plying  his  trade  in  the  open  air.  He  is  bare- 
headed and  barefooted.     A  young  apprentice  works  with 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  37 

him.  Scattered  through  the  city  are  many  such  who  thus 
get  their  rent  free,  as  their  progenitors  did  thousands  of 
years  ago  in  old  Rome  and  Tyre. 

The  most  numerous  street-venders  are  those,  of  all 
ages,  who  sell  lottery-tickets.  Lotteries  are  legalized  and 
protected  by  the  Government  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  the  purchase  and  sale  of  lottery-tickets  is  one  of  the 
chief  subjects  of  popular  interest.  ^^Andar  hoje  !  "  ("  The 
wheel  turns  to-day  ! ")  is  a  call  from  the  lips  of  lottery-ticket 
sellers  which  greets  the  passer-by  at  many  street-comers 
the  year  round.  Rio  seems  a  paradise  for  newspaper-boys 
— a  jolly  and  peaceable  set — ^the  most  of  whom  go  bare- 
footed, wear  patched  trousers,  a  shirt,  a  black  felt  hat,  and 
smoke  cigarettes.  They  hover  at  the  regular  starting  and 
stopping  places  of  the  street-cars,  and  go  on  a  keen  run 
from  the  newspaper-offices  with  the  latest  edition.  They 
shout  the  papers,  and  make  a  great  deal  of  clamor,  espe- 
cially when  it  has  a  list  of  lottery-prizes.  The  confec- 
tionary-venders, equally  numerous  and  noisy,  sell  home- 
made candies,  called  hallos^  each  done  up  in  a  twist  of 
fancy  colored  paper.  These  venders  are  generally  black 
or  mulatto  slave-boys,  who  are  required  to  carry  home  a 
fixed  sum,  and  are  allowed  the  surplus  if  there  be  any. 
While  the  fashionable  street-car  is  rapidly  filling,  or  far- 
tlier  on  waits  a  minute  for  a  coming  car  to  pass,  the  in- 
dulgent Brazilian  parent  has  just  time  to  buy  a  handful 
of  these  sweets  for  the  children. 

There  are  several  itinerant  bands  of  German  musi- 
cians, who  go  about  the  streets  of  Rio  and  execute  instru- 
mental music  for  the  pay  that  the  by-standers  may  choose 
to  give.  A  few  of  these  bands  comprise  a  dozen  mem- 
bers, and  their  instruments  are  what  are  generally  used 
by  an  orchestra.     They  seem  to  make  the  round  of  the 


38        BRAZIL;   ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

city  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks.  All  at  once,  say  about 
eleven  o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  when  the  heat  is  most  in- 
tense, the  occupants  of  a  counting-room  are  liable  to  hear 
under  their  windows  the  inspiring  strains  of  some  fine 
overture,  executed  by  one  of  these  bands. 

The  native,  the  Portuguese,  and  the  Italian  elements, 
comprise  the  majority  of  the  laboring  classes.  Many  of 
the  Portuguese  are  from  the  Azores,  and  are  usually  in- 
dustrious and  saving.  Generally  laborers  are  paid  every 
fifteen  days;  but  house-servants,  salesmen,  and  clerks, 
monthly.  At  common  labor  men  now  earn  at  Kio  about 
eighty  cents  a  day ;  machinists,  from  seven  to  thirty  dol- 
lars a  week,  depending  on  the  degree  of  skill  and  kind  of 
trade.  Laboring- men  at  Rio  usually  live  in  estalagems 
or  in  Gortigos.  The  former  is  the  name  given  to  a  num- 
ber of  small  houses,  built  together  and  forming  a  square, 
or  sometimes  even  occupying  the  ground-floor  of  a  respect- 
able dwelling-house.  A  cortigo  (hive)  is  where  these  houses 
are  almost  limited  to  one  room  each,  and  have  to  be 
reached  by  a  common  staircase  and  veranda.  Quarters  in 
an  estalagem  may  be  rented  at  from  five  to  eight  dollars  a 
month ;  and  in  a  cortigo,  at  from  three  and  a  half  to  four 
and  a  half  dollars  a  month.  Single  men  hiring  only  one 
room  pay  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  dollars  a 
month.  These  hives  are  generally  very  much  wanting  in 
sanitary  regards.  The  best  quarters  never  comprise  more 
than  three  rooms — a  sitting-room,  a  bedroom,  and  a  kitch- 
en. The  sitting-room .  and  the  bedroom  are  each  about 
ten  feet  square ;  the  kitchen  much  smaller.  Some  houses 
do  not  have  a  kitchen,  in  which  case  the  occupants  cook 
out  in  the  common  yard.  In  the  sitting-room  are  gener- 
ally found  a  pine-wood  table,  wooden  or  sometimes  cane- 
seated  chairs,  and,  more  rarely,  a  cane-seated  sofa.     In 


EIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  39 

the  bedroom  stand  a  bedstead,  an  iron  wasli-stand,  and, 
perhaps,  a  chest  of  dravv^ers ;  and  on  the  walls  may  be  seen 
some  cheap  pictm-e  of  a  saint.  In  the  kitchen  is  an  iron 
stove  belonging  to  the  house,  an  earthen  water- jar,  and 
some  shelves.  Usually  the  bedroom  has  no  window,  but 
there  are  openings  at  the  top  of  the  wall  for  ventiJation. 
The  workman  leaves  his  house  for  his  work,  and  the  wife 
passes  the  whole  day  washing  and  ironing.  The  health  of 
these  women  often  breaks  down  from  overwork.  It  is  not 
usual  among  the  laboring  classes  for  families  to  lay  up 
money.  However,  one  sometimes  sees  men,  particularly 
the  unmarried,  endure  all  kinds  of  privations  to  save 
money.  Many  of  the  yomig,  toiling  Portuguese  look  for- 
ward to  returning  at  some  future  day  to  their  native  island 
or  country,  and  buying  a  little  patch  of  ground  with  all 
its  free  appurtenances  of  sun  and  sky,  and  doubly  dear 
from  its  boyhood  associations.  In  no  clime  do  men  work 
harder  than  at  Kio,  and  the  frugal  can  rise  in  the  world. 
A  short  time  ago  there  died  at  Hio  a  baron  owning  a  num- 
ber of  houses,  which  brought  him  a  monthly  revenue  of 
seventeen  hundred  dollars,  and  w^ho  began  life  as  a  ped- 
dler of  liver  and  tripe.  After  the  day's  work  is  done,  the 
time  is  frequently  passed  in  card-playing,  in  a  game  of 
quoits,  or  in  singing.  The  Italians  are  fond  of  singing, 
and  amuse  themselves  thus,  and  by  playing  on  the  accor- 
dion and  banjo.  One  cotton  and  woolen  factory  at  Rio 
employs  sixty  women  and  forty-seven  children  as  opera- 
tives. Some  other  factories  employ  female  operatives. 
"Women  are  also  employed  in  boot  and  shoe  factories. 
Probably  two  thousand  females  are  employed  in  manu- 
facturing establishments  in  the  city. 

Of  laboring-men  seen  in  the  streets  a  majority  are 
barefooted,  and  wear  simply  an  undershirt,  common  black 


40        BRAZIL:   ITS   COl^DITIOIT  AND  PROSPECTS. 

felt  hat,  and  trousers  of  blue  cotton  drilling,  often  mucli 
faded  and  patched.  Scarcely  one  in  a  hundred  wears  a 
cravat  or  anything  about  the  neck.  The  bone  and  sinew 
of  Eio  are  replenished  every  year  by  some  thousands  of 
temperate,  industrious,  and  hardy  people  from  the  Azore 
Islands  and  the  mountain  districts  of  Portugal. 

Being  the  capital,  Rio  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Cro-svn,  which  attends  to  all  such  matters  as  the  supply  of 
water,  Hght,  and  police.  The  Municipal  Council  now  have 
a  new  and  fine  chamber ;  they  are  elected  for  four  years, 
and  their  president  is  the  acting  mayor.  They  receive 
no  salaries.  Licenses  for  the  sale  of  spirits  are  not  high. 
About  every  grocery  retails  spirits,  or  may  do  so ;  and 
there  are,  besides,  many  stands,  or  hiosJcs^  in  the  more  fre- 
quented squares  where  spirits  are  retailed.  A  good  deal 
of  native  rum  is  drunk  by  the  slaves  and  lower  class  of  la- 
borers, which  is  sold  at  only  a  cent  or  two  for  a  small  glass. 
The  use  of  beer  is  increasing ;  but,  while  much  strong 
drink  is  consumed,  intoxication  is  not  very  common.  The 
best  business  men  and  the  best  laboring-men  are  habitu- 
ally temperate.  Buildings  are  taxed  but  vacant  land  is 
nowhere  taxed  in  Brazil.  One  may  own  acres  of  land  in 
the  city  limits  without  ever  having  to  pay  a  tax  on  it. 
"What  a  happy  place  for  real-estate  dealers! — only  that 
there  is  a  tax  of  six  per  cent  on  the  amount  of  considera- 
tion in  every  conveyance. 

The  Brazilians  are  a  very  patriotic  people.  Some  of 
the  streets  in  the  city  bear  as  names  the  dates  of  impor- 
tant national  events.  There  are  several  political  as  well 
as  religious  holidays,  and  they  are  generally  ushered  in 
by  the  discharge  of  fire-crackers  and  rockets,  the  noise 
of  which  sometimes  continues  with  but  little  cessation 
through  the  day. 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  41 

The  Carnival  seems  to  be  losing  sometliing  of  its 
l^opularity.  The  higher  classes  at  that  time  keep  within- 
doors. The  first  reminder  one  has  of  the  approaching 
festival  is  the  appearance,  on  the  Sunday  preceding  it,  of 
boys,  and  especially  mulattoes  and  blacks,  in  the  streets, 
dressed  in  tight-fitting  suits  of  red  cloth  vs^ith  long  tails 
and  hoods,  frequently  masked,  and  who  are  called  didbos, 
or  devils.  The  real  fun  begins  the  afternoon  before 
Carnival-day  and  continues  during  the  day.  People  then 
have  a  good  deal  of  sport,  saluting  even  strangers  with 
mock  politeness,  squirting  perfumed  water  at  each  other, 
and  throwing  at  whoever  they  think  they  can  hit  light 
waxen  balls  of  water  the  size  of  a  hen's  Q^g.  It  is  very 
funny,  especially  to  those  who  do  not  get  too  much  of  a 
drenching.  On  these  occasions  passengers  in  the  street- 
cars who  are  liable  to  be  pelted  from  balconies,  and  people 
in  the  more  crowded  streets,  do  not  want  to  have  on  their 
best  clothes.  Sometimes  a  cranky  individual  will  resent 
the  sport,  and  a  lively  little  interchange  of  fisticuffs  will 
be  the  result.  But  for  the  most  part  everything  passes 
off  in  the  best  of  humor,  and  mankind  for  a  while  seem 
like  a  happy  family.  The  celebration  winds  up  with  a 
gorgeous  torch-light  procession  of  people  of  both  sexes 
in  rich  fancy  costumes,  sometimes  masked,  drawn  in 
highly  decorated  carriages.  The  male  portion  of  the  pro- 
cession is  made  up  principally  of  the  different  social  clubs 
whose  organization  is  mostly  for  balls  and  other  pleasure, 
and  which  adopt  singular  names,  such  as  "  Devil's  Lieuten- 
ants," "Fenians,"  "Democrats." 

The  ordinary  diversions  are  such  as  are  found  in  most 
large  cities.  There  are  several  spacious  theatres.  Horse- 
racing  is  becoming  frequent  on  Sundays  and  holidays, 
and  occasionally  there  is  a  bull-fight.    But  there  is  among 


42       BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

the  higher-toned  people  a  growing  disposition  to  encour- 
age manly  sports  —  rowing,  ball-playing,  and  jumping. 
The  exhibitions  of  the  Athletic  Club  are  attended  by  the 
imperial  family  and  families  of  high  social  rank.  When 
business  is  good  at  Rio,  some  foreign  opera  company  usu- 
ally performs  at  the  Dom  Pedro  Segundo  Theatre  during 
the  three  cooler  months — June,  July,  and  August.  On 
such  occasions  the  Emperor  and  Empress  are  generally 
to  be  seen  in  the  imperial  box.  Ladies  sitting  in  the  first 
tier  of  boxes,  or  dress-circle,  are  in  full  evening  dress  with- 
out bonnets ;  if  they  sit  in  the  parquet,  they  may  wear 
bonnets.  The  performance  does  not  begin  till  eight 
o'clock.  There  are  long  intermissions  between  the  acts, 
when  most  of  the  men  go  out  and  smoke  cigarettes — it 
is  a  cold  day  in  Brazil  when  there  are  no  cigarettes — or 
take  a  cup  of  coffee,  and  the  opera  or  play  does  not  end 
till  after  midnight.  The  Dom  Pedro  Segundo  Theatre  is 
very  large.  The  Beethoven  Club,  with  an  Englishman 
at  its  head,  is  a  valuable  organization  which  provides  sev- 
eral small  and  one  or  two  grand  concerts  every  season. 
With  my  family  I  attended  two  of  its  grand  concerts  in 
the  Casino  Hall,  situated  opposite  the  Public  Garden. 
The  music  was  of  the  highest  order,  and  there  was  a 
large  number  of  performers  ;  but  there  also  the  exercises 
were  spun  out  to  an  intolerable  length :  indeed,  between 
the  second  and  third  parts  of  one  concert  time  was  given 
for  some  of  the  performers  to  sit  down  to  a  table  in  a 
side-room  and  partake  of  an  elaborate  meal  while  the 
audience  were  hngering  about  and  whiling  away  the  time 
as  best  they  could.  However,  during  the  ordinary  inter- 
missions many  of  the  audience  move  about  through  the 
ample  corridors,  or  partake  of  refreshments  which  are  for 
sale  at  buffets  in  the  palm-bordered  side-rooms.     The 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  43 

imperial  family  with  tlieir  attendants  were  present,  and 
sat,  not  with  the  audience,  but  in  special  chairs  at  one 
side.  The  hall  of  the  Casino  will  hold  several  thousand 
people,  and  is  finely  proportioned,  with  a  handsome  gallery 
on  each  side,  supported  by  fluted  pillars,  and  is  with  its 
decorations  an  exceedingly  beautiful  hall.  It  is  seldom 
used,  and  only  for  grand  balls  of  high  society  and  an  oc- 
casional concert. 

Street  begging  is  illegal  and  is  pretty  much  suppressed, 
but  there  are  certain  people  who  are  allowed  to  beg  in 
the  streets  on  Saturdays,  making  their  regular  rounds; 
their  numerous  visits  are  inconvenient,  and  I  have  ad- 
mired the  patience  with  which  shopkeepers  go  to  the 
door  and  hand  the  poor  one  a  copper. 

Passing  one  afternoon  with  a  friend  along  Rua  Eva- 
rista  de  Veiga,  the  street  on  which  the  English  church 
at  Rio  is  situated,  and  which  runs  along  the  foot  of  the 
San  Antonio  Hill  parallel  with  the  front  of  the  Public 
Garden,  we  came,  when  in  sight  of  the  high  aqueduct 
arches,  to  the  Foundling  Hospital  {Casa  dos  Expostos), 
into  which  we  were  admitted  by  a  Sister  of  Charity. 
Annually  about  four  hundred  infants  of  unknown  parent- 
age are  secretly  conveyed  into  this  humane  institution 
through  what  is  popularly  called  "  the  wheel."  Since  its 
establishment  it  has  received  forty  thousand  such  infants ! 
They  are  taken  care  of  eight  days,  then  put  into  private 
families  for  board  at  about  five  dollars  a  month  each, 
until  a  year  and  a  half  old,  after  which  two  dollars  a 
month  are  paid.  About  six  thousand  dollars  a  quarter  are 
thus  paid  by  the  asylum  for  the  children's  outside  board. 
When  old  enough  to  attend  school,  they  are  brought  back 
to  the  institution,  where  they  receive  instruction  till  the 
age  of  twelve  years,  and  then  are  sent  to  learn  trades.     A 


44       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

little  dower  is  given  them  when  they  marry.  There  are 
now  forty  children  in  the  asylum  receiving  instruction. 
The  building  stands  even  with  the  sidewalk,  and  there  is 
nothing  in  its  exterior  to  mark  its  character  save,  perhaps, 
the  place  where  the  infants  are  deposited ;  and  this  would 
not  attract  the  notice  of  a  casual  passer-by,  unacquainted 
with  the  building,  because  the  opening  in  the  wall  is 
scarcely  apparent.  What  looks  like  a  narrow  and  slightly 
oval  vertical  panel  in  the  wall  set  in  a  stone  frame  is  the 
outer  side  of  the  "  wheel,"  a  sort  of  barrel-shaped  revolv- 
ing dumb-waiter,  with  three  open  shelves  on  the  interior 
side.  The  outer  side  fits  close,  and  a  firm  push  is  required 
to  make  it  turn  and  bring  the  shelves  toward  the  street. 
When  this  is  done,  a  foundling  can  be  laid  on  one  of  the 
shelves ;  and,  as  the  wheel  is  again  turned,  it  in  a  moment 
conveys  the  child  within  the  walls  of  the  asylum  into 
what  may  be  called  the  foundling  reception  room,  and 
at  the  same  time  rings  a  very  loud  alarm-beU,  A  Sister 
of  Charity  or  servant  immediately  comes  and  takes  the 
foundling ;  and  in  order  to  preserve  its  identity  for  any 
future  purpose,  a  record  is  immediately  made  of  the  ex- 
act time  it  was  received,  its  sex,  appearance,  and  clothing. 
Sometimes  the  mother  has  pinned  to  its  clothing  the 
name  she  wishes  it  to  bear,  and  this  wish  is  usually  re- 
spected. Nobody  knows  or  cares  to  know  who  left  the 
child.  The  very  contrivance  of  the  wheel  is  to  afford 
secrecy. 

Many  of  the  foundlings  are  sick  when  received,  and 
from  thirty  to  thirty-two  per  cent  die,  a  smaller  percent- 
age than  in  former  years.  The  number  received  in  for- 
mer times  was  also  larger  than  at  present,  being  from 
five  hundred  to  six  hundred  per  year,  thus  showing  that, 
with  the  social  improvement  of  the  age,  there  is  a  decrease 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  45 

of  illegitimate  births,  notwithstanding  the  growth  of  the 
city.  Many  of  the  foundhngs  are  mulattoes ;  and  those 
which  I  saw,  in  a  dormitory  of  thirty-two  beds,  were  qnite 
diminutive.  There  seemed  scarcely  to  be  a  healthy-look- 
ing child  among  them.  The  room  they  were  in  had  a 
qniet  situation,  with  two  windows,  and,  though  large,  the 
atmosphere  was  close.  The  beds  were  in  neat  iron  cribs, 
with  a  muslin  mosquito-bar  for  each.  Slave-women  are 
invariably  employed  as  wet-nurses,  it  being  the  policy  of 
the  asylum  not  to  employ  in  that  capacity  any  of  the 
mothers  of  the  foundlings.  A  physician  visits  the  asylum 
daily.  It  sometimes  happens  that  parents  wish  to  get  their 
children  back,  and,  under  proper  circumstances  and  by 
furnishing  requisite  proof  of  identity,  they  can  do  so.  I 
was  informed  by  the  Lady  Superior,  who  politely  accom- 
panied us  through  the  building,  that  there  are  now  sixteen 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Order  of  Sao  Yincent  de  Paulo 
living  there  and  giving  their  services.  It  is  a  home  for 
them  during  Hfe,  they  being  well  cared  for  when  no 
longer  able  for  active  duty.  The  institution  was  founded 
in  1738  by  Eomao  de  Mattos  Duarte,  and  is  so  amply 
endowed  that  its  own  income  is  abundantly  sufficient  to 
meet  all  its  expenses.  Though  plain  outwardly,  the 
building  is  very  commodious  and  well  finished ;  all  its 
floors  are  of  polished  hard  wood  of  dark  color,  waxed. 
The  room  for  the  meetings  of  the  board  of  administra- 
tion is  quite  large.  On  one  of  its  walls  are  full-length 
portraits  in  oil  of  the  founder,  above  mentioned,  and  of 
D.  Luiza  Eoza  Avondano  Pereira,  an  important  bene- 
factress of  the  institution.  On  another  side  are  full- 
length  portraits  of  the  present  Emperor  and  Empress  of 
Brazil,  and  on  the  wall  opposite  them  similar-sized  por- 
traits of  the  Emperor's  father  and  mother.     The  edifice 


46        BRAZIL:   ITS   COKDITION   AND   PKOSPEOTS. 

has  a  court  in  the  center,  with  a  flower-garden  and  fount- 
ain, and  there  is  quite  a  piece  of  ground,  belonging  to 
the  premises,  extending  up  on  the  Sao  Antonio  Hill,  for 
the  recreation  of  the  children.  Indeed,  the  establishment 
has  in  its  size,  finish,  and  equipment  most  of  the  substan- 
tial quahties  which  affluence  can  provide ;  and  it  can  almost 
be  said  that  the  foundling  deposited  in  the  "wheel" 
enters  a  palace.  The  president  of  the  board  of  directors 
is  the  present  prime  minister,  being  the  same  individual 
who  is  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of  the  great 
Santa  Casa  Hospital.  There  are  foundling  asylums  also 
in  the  cities  of  Bahia  and  Pemambuco. 
^/ About  ten  years  ago,  I  visited  a  prison,  in  one  of  the 
smaller  Protestant  countries  of  Europe,  where  were  fifty 
female  convicts  undergoing  a  life-sentence  for  the  mur- 
der of  their  offspring.  They  were  quietly  and  orderly 
working  at  spinning  and  weaving,  but  I  remember  dis- 
tinctly what  a  fixed  expression  of  melancholy  there  was 
on  their  faces.  When  I  got  home  and  was  thinking  the 
matter  over,  I  thought  I  could  not  have  rightly  under- 
stood the  director  of  the  prison,  that  so  many  as  fifty 
women  were  under  sentence  for  child-murder,  and  wrote 
him  to  inquire  if  I  was  right.  He  replied  that  I  had  not 
misunderstood  him.  I  can  not  but  believe  that  institu- 
tions like  this  foundhng  hospital  tend  greatly  to  prevent 
crime.  They  certainly  prevent  the  practice  of  leaving 
infants  on  door-steps. 

In  several  of  the  provincial  capitals  there  are  asylums 
for  gu'ls,  under  charge  of  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  which  ap- 
pear to  have  been  founded  by  private  beneficence.  The 
Asylum  of  Purity,  established  in  1874,  in  the  province  of 
Sergipe,  for  the  support,  protection,  and  education  of  neg- 
lected orphan  girls,  has  a  fund  of  five  thousand  dollars, 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  47 

and  receives  anmially,  by  vote  of  the  provincial  legislature, 
about  two  thousand  dollars.  The  inmates,  of  whom  there 
are  now  twenty-seven,  receive  instruction  in  the  common 
branches,  as  well  as  sewing  and  house-work,  and  remain 
till  they  are  eighteen  years  of  age,  when  in  case  of  mar- 
riage each  one  receives  a  dower  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
dollars  in  money,  and  an  outfit  of  the  value  of  eighty  dollars. 
Epiphany  is  one  of  the  days  of  the  Catholic  Church 
kept  with  as  much  strictness  as  a  New  England  Sunday, 
though  it  come  on  a  week-day.  I  took  that  day  to  visit, 
with  my  family,  the  immense  hospital  called  Sancta  Casa 
de  Misericordia,  or  Holy  House  of  Mercy.  It  is  the  hos- 
pital into  which  all  sick  seamen  (if  the  disease  be  not  con- 
tagious), of  whatever  nationality,  are  received,  and  treated 
gratuitously  (the  port  charges,  which  foreign  vessels  pay, 
are  ample  to  cover  such  expenses),  as  well  as  the  poor  of 
the  city.  It  is  richly  endowed,  and  generally  well  admin- 
istered. The  nurses,  who  likewise  mix  the  medicines, 
are  Sisters  of  Charity,  of  different  nationalities.  As  I  had 
visited  the  hospital  several  times  previously,  I  did  not  on 
this  occasion  enter  the  sick-wards,  though  in  passing  the 
doors  could  look  in.  We  were  taken  into  the  kitchen  and 
prescription-room,  both  spacious  and  neat ;  also  up-stairs 
into  a  chapel,  for  which  large  space  in  every  such  institu- 
tion is  devoted;  also  into  a  council-chamber  or  hall,  on 
whose  walls  were  many  poorly  painted  portraits.  There 
was  also  a  full-sized  plaster  statue  of  the  Emperor,  though 
it  struck  me  a  statue  of  the  benevolent  founder  of  the  in- 
stitution, and  not  in  plaster  either,  would  have  been  more 
appropriate.  However,  there  is  in  the  reception-room  a 
marble  bust  of  the  founder.  This  hospital  furnishes  quar- 
ters in  a  neighboring  building  for  one  or  two  hundred 
orphan  children.     It  is  a  splendid  establishment,  but  too 


48        BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION   AND  PROSPECTS. 

large  to  suit  modern  sanitary  ideas,  and  its  beds  and  pil- 
lows are  very  hard. 

Among  other  institutions  which  we  visited  during  our 
residence  at  Rio  was  the  Blind  Asylum,  situated  in  Campa 
S.  Anna.  It  is  a  Government  institution,  the  only  one 
in  Brazil,  with  fifty  pupils ;  occupies  rented  premises,  and 
receives  an  appropriation  of  twenty-five  thousand  dollars 
a  year.  A  few  of  the  pupils  speak,  read,  and  write  both 
Portuguese  and  French,  also  play  on  the  piano,  and  sing. 
There  is  a  brass  band  composed  of  pupils.  Some  of  the 
needlework  of  the  women  is  ingenious. 

There  is  a  fairly  respectable  art-gallery  at  Rio,  which 
is  visited  on  some  holidays  by  a  few  hundred  people ;  but 
the  collection  is  inferior  to  what  a  foreigner  would  ex- 
pect in  a  city  so  large,  and  which  for  a  century  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  royal  or  imperial  dynasty.  There  is  some 
pretension  of  imparting  free  instruction  in  painting ;  but 
I  got  the  impression  that  the  privileges  of  instruction 
there,  and  at  the  Conservatory  of  Music,  are  not  much 
sought  after. 

The  principal  and  most  modern  supply  of  water  comes 
a  distance  of  thirty  miles  from  the  mountain  rivers  Sao 
Antonio  and  d'Ouro.  It  was  estimated  that  the  minimum 
supply  of  the  aqueduct  from  these  streams  would  be  thirty 
million  litres  in  twenty-four  hours,  but  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Public  Works,  when  he  visited  the  reser- 
voir Pedregulho  on  the  21st  of  August,  1884,  found  the 
supply  to  be  only  sixteen  million  litres  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  oldest  aqueduct  is  the  Carioca,  which  brings 
water  from  heights  between  the  Corcovado  and  Tijuca 
Mountains,  a  distance  of  eight  miles.  About  ten  million 
dollars  in  all  have  been  expended  for  Rio's  supply  of  water, 
which  is  a  small  sum  to  extend  over  two  centuries,  and 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  49 

for  so  large  and  so  rich  a  city,  and  one  wliicli  has  been  so 
liable  to  dangerous  epidemics.  The  water  comes  from 
clear  mountain-streams,  and  is  good,  but  is  not  as  abundant 
as  it  ought  to  be.  Several  fountains  have  recently  been 
built  in  some  of  the  squares  of  the  city,  but  they  are  dry 
nearly  the  year  round.  Rio  ought  to  be  as  well  supplied 
with  water  as  Eome,  where  in  scores  of  fountains  one  sees 
water  enough  to  carry  a  mill,  a  part  of  which  is  brought 
in  aqueducts  built  in  the  time  of  the  old  republic.  Some 
of  the  water  for  Paris  is  now  brought  a  hundred  miles. 

The  scheme  of  building  a  bridge  across  the  Bay  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro  to  connect  the  city  with  Nictheroy  has  been 
advocated  by  capable  engineers  for  several  years,  and  by 
the  president  of  the  province  in  his  annual  report,  includ- 
ing the  latest.  The  shortest  distance  across  is  from  the 
Benedictine  Hill  in  Rio  to  the  hill  of  Armacao  in  'Nic- 
theroy — two  miles  and  three  quarters  ;  and  the  president 
states  that  a  bridge  suitable  for  tramways,  vehicles,  and 
foot-passsengers,  and  having  a  draw  for  big  vessels,  could 
be  built  for  six  million  dollars. 

To  see  Rio  in  the  glory  of  its  tropical  summer,  one 
should  go  there  in  our  winter  months,  though  perhaps  the 
safest  time  for  Americans  to  be  there  would  be  from  May 
to  September.  That  would  be  the  winter  season  at  Rio, 
the  most  of  which  is  like  our  pleasant  summer  weather. 
There  are  then  many  nights  when  three  blankets  are  not 
too  much  cover. 

With  regard  to  the  yellow  fever,  I  would  state  that 
with  my  family  I  have  passed  three  continuous  hot  sea- 
sons in  the  city  without  any  of  us  incurring  it.  During 
the  first  few  months  of  its  prevalence  I  felt  a  little  nerv- 
ous about  it.  The  consular  office  was  in  the  level  business 
center,  and  was  sometimes  visited  by  seamen  in  the  incipi- 
5 


50        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

ent  stage  of  the  disease ;  but  as  our  residence  was  in  one  of 
the  most  sahibrious  parts  of  the  city,  we  gradually  became 
imconcerned  about  it,  and  went  and  came  day  and  even- 
ing in  any  part  of  the  city  without  apprehension,  and,  as 
it  proved,  without  danger.  Our  diet  was  the  same  as  it 
would  be  in  the  United  States.  The  yellow  fever  is  not 
necessarily  a  fatal  disease,  unless  there  be  inherent  weak- 
ness of  the  constitution^  The  great  preventives  are  to 
avoid  excess  in  respect  to  exposure,  fatigue,  and  diet.  The 
first  remedies  are  important  yet  simple.  As  soon  as  one 
has  the  symptoms,  which  are  severe  pain  in  the  head  and 
back,  the  approved  practice  is  to  go  to  bed,  take  a  big 
dose  of  castor-oil,  and  after  that  has  had  effect,  aconite  in 
water  to  produce  sweat.  Good  nursing,  and  especially 
watching  in  the  night,  with  frequent  ice  and  milk,  and 
iced  Seltzer-water,  are  important.  Most  frequently  the 
fatal  cases  are  where  single  men  or  others  lodge  in  apart- 
ments alone,  and  become  very  ill  before  any  friend  or  ac- 
quaintance laiows  their  condition.  I  do  not  think  much 
confidence  is  felt  at  Rio  in  the  system  of  inoculation 
against  yellow  fever,  and  which  is  but  slightly  in  vogue 
there.  Usually  a  few  deaths  from  the  disease  are  reported 
in  December,  and  the  mortality  increases  till  into  March 
and  April,  which  are  the  worst  months.  There  was  a  bad 
epidemic  in  1883  ;  another,  though  lighter,  in  1884 ;  still 
lighter  in  1885  ;  but  worse,  again,  in  1886.  The  deaths 
from  yellow  fever  for  the  first  half  of  1886  were  nine 
hundred  and  sixty-seven.  There  is  a  public  yellow-fever 
hospital,  called  Jurujuba,  situated  on  the  shore  of  a  distant 
inlet  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay  from  Bio.  If  a  sea- 
man on  any  vessel  is  sick  with  the  fever,  a  yellow  flag  is 
hoisted  and  a  public  health-boat  comes  and  takes  him  to 
the  hospital. 


RIO  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  51 

For  a  few  years  back  a  regulation  of  the  port  of  Eio 
has  required  all  vessels  arriving  in  the  hot  season  to  an- 
chor, discharge  and  load  cargo  at  least  a  mile  from  shore, 
which  has  had  a  remarkably  good  effect  in  keeping  the 
yellow  fever  from  the  shipping,  but  adds  greatly  to  the 
expense  of  transportation. 

On  account  of  a  certain  dampness  in  the  atmosphere 
of  Kio,  there  is  more  mortaHty  from  consumption  than 
from  yellow  fever.  The  deaths  from  consumption  in 
June,  1886,  were  one  hundred  and  fifty.  Dr.  James  A. 
Stewart,  M.  D.,  Commissioner  of  Health  and  Registrar  for 
the  city  of  Baltimore,  writing  me  under  date  of  December 
15,  1884,  said:  "The  mortuary  reports  of  the  city  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  I  have  had  the  pleasure  to  receive 
from  you  for  some  time  past,  have  greatly  interested  me 
on  account  of  the  surprising  prej)onderance  of  pulmonary 
consumption  over  all  other  causes  of  death.  We  have 
evidently  been  making  a  great  mistake  in  sending  our 
consumptive  patients  to  Rio  for  relief." 


CHAPTEE  lY. 


LIFE   AND   MANNEES. 


At  our  residence  up  in  Rua  das  Larangeiras,  two  miles 
from  the  busiest  part  of  the  city,  Sundays,  and  especially 
Sunday  mornings,  seemed  as  quiet  as  they  are  in  the  Unit- 
ed States.  To  me  those  mornings,  so  tranquil,  so  clear 
and  sunny,  were  generally  very  charming.  Foliage-cov- 
ered hills  behind  and  in  front  of  the  house  gave  the 
place  a  country  aspect.  The  wren,  and  numerous  other 
small  birds,  in  some  tall  trees  in  the  door-yard,  made  the 
air  vocal  with  their  notes.  But  sometimes,  and  as  if  to 
fehow  a  certain  laxness  of  affairs,  the  discordant  report  of 
a  musket  would  come  from  one  of  the  hills,  where  a  mis- 
chievous boy  was  hunting  birds.  As  a  rule,  Sunday  is  a 
quiet  day  at  Eio,  though  many  retail  shops  are  kept  open, 
and  some  kinds  of  out-door  labor  carried  on.  Billiard- 
rooms  and  other  places  of  amusement  are  more  frequented 
then  than  on  week-days.  Though  Brazil  is  a  Cathohc 
country,  religious  liberty  is  declared  in  the  Constitution, 
and  exists  practically  in  the  principal  cities.  A  Protestant 
at  Rio,  wishing  to  attend  public  religious  worship,  would 
find  several  churches  on  a  respectable  footing.  The  Chapel 
of  the  Church  of  England  is  a  building  which  will  com- 
fortably seat  several  hundred  people,  has  a  good  organ, 
and  is  frequented  by  a  fair  congregation  composed  of 
British  subjects  and  Americans.     The  preaching  is  by 


LIFE   AND  MANNERS.  53 

Rev.  Frederick  Young,  A.  M.,  an  able  and  attentive  pas- 
tor. The  Presbyterian  chiircb  dates  back  many  years, 
and  lias  a  numerous  membersliip  among  tlie  native  poorer 
class.  The  church  building  is  spacious,  the  services  are 
in  the  Portuguese  language,  and  the  singing  is  congrega- 
tional. It  is  mainly  supported  by  the  American  Pres- 
byterian Missionary  Society,  and  the  American  pastors 
are  Rev.  Messrs.  Houston  and  Kyle.  An  able  Brazilian 
preaches  Sunday  evenings.  The  Presbyterians  also  have 
a  church  at  Bahia  and  at  several  other  places.  The 
Methodists,  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South, 
who  for  some  time  held  services  in  their  neat  chapel 
about  opposite  the  Strangers'  Hotel,  have  lately  built  a 
tine  church  edifice  adjoining  the  chapel,  where  religious 
exercises  and  Sunday-school  are  held  in  Enghsh  in  the 
morning,  and  in  Portuguese  in  the  evening.  The  pastors. 
Revs.  J.  J.  Ransom  (temporarily  at  Juiz  de  Pora)  and 
J.  L.  Kennedy,  preach  in  both  languages.  The  Baptists 
also  have  a  church,  under  the  charge  of  Rev.  W.  B.  Bag- 
by.  All  these  pastors  whose  names  I  have  mentioned 
have  their  families  living  at  Rio,  and  command  respect. 
Mr.  Ransom  is  a  preacher  of  unusual  eloquence.  The 
Methodists  are  looking  forward  to  have  an  important 
young  ladies'  school  established  at  Rio,  under  their  au- 
spices. The  "Woman's  Missionary  Society,  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South,  of  which  Mrs.  Juliana 
Hayes,  of  Baltimore,  is  president,  undertook  to  raise  a 
fund  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  a  young  ladies'  school 
in  Brazil,  to  serve  as  a  centenary  monument  of  the 
Methodist  Church.  Over  half  of  the  amount  had  been 
raised  in  1885.  I  might  here  say  that  there  are  perhaps 
two  hundred  Americans  residing  at  Rio  ;  the  proportion 
of  English,  French,  and  Germans  is  much  larger — of 


54       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

course  the  largest  separate  foreign  element  is  the  Portu- 
guese. 

I  should  say  that  a  vast  majority  of  the  population  of 
Kio  are  indifferent  to  religious  matters.  One  effect  of 
the  increase  of  Protestant  churches  in  Brazil  will  be  an 
awakening  of  the  Catholic  Church.  There  is  nothing 
more  beneficial  than  competition.  At  present  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  Brazil  is  in  a  feeble  state.  But  there  are 
many  of  the  best  Brazilian  families  who  are  religious,  and 
who,  by  a  posture  of  devotion  before  a  meal  or  other  act, 
manifest  a  thoughtfulness  of  religion.  Seven  days  after 
the  death  of  a  near  relative,  the  whole  family  attends  a 
special  mass  at  church,  and  another  at  the  anniversary 
of  the  death.  There  is  not  preaching,  however,  regularly 
in  the  Catholic  churches  on  Sundays.  The  Catholic 
priests  are  poorly  paid.  As  an  intellectual  force  they 
amount  to  but  very  little,  and  do  not  have  that  considera- 
tion which  the  Catholic  clergy  enjoy  in  Protestant  coun- 
tries. After  the  Protestant  Church  gets  well  established 
in  Brazil,  and  church-attendance  becomes  as  popular  as 
it  is  in  England  and  the  United  States,  the  Cathohc 
Church  will  very  likely  exert  a  more  elevating  influence 
than  it  now  does.  A  Brazilian  official  told  Mr.  Cham- 
berlain, the  Presbyterian  missionary  at  Sao  Paulo,  that  he 
wished  he  would  spread  his  religion,  citing  the  influence 
of  an  old  Brazilian  citizen,  of  local  influence,  living  in  a 
remote  country  place  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  who 
had  been  converted  to  the  Presbyterian  faith  and  held 
prayer-meetings  in  his  house,  and  from  whose  district  no 
crimes  were  reported. 

In  the  larger  cities,  where  there  is  more  than  ordi- 
nary intelligence,  the  Protestant  missionaries  are  pretty 
sure  of  peaceable  treatment ;  but  occasionally,  in  remote 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  55 

places,  they  meet  at  first  with  rude  opposition  from  the 
lower  classes.  However,  the  men  of  influence  generally 
have  that  national  pride  that  leads  them  to  interpose  in 
case  of  any  excess,  and  guarantee  the  missionary  protec- 
tion in  the  exercise  of  freedom  of  speech  and  worship. 

In  the  truly  disciplined  Brazilian  family  are  some  pe- 
culiar customs.  When  evening  comes,  the  members  of 
the  family  bid  each  other  ^'  hoa  noite  " — literally,  "  good- 
night." They  may  be  sitting  at  dinner,  and,  on  the 
lights  being  lit,  it  is  a  reminder  that  evening  has  come. 
Then  they  exchange  this  salutation,  and  the  children  rise 
and  kiss  the  hands  of  their  parents.  This  custom  is  in- 
herited from  the  Portuguese,  and  is  more  generally  ob- 
served in  the  country  than  in  the  city.  If  it  be  the 
father  whom  the  children  address,  they  say,  "  A  hencao, 
men  paV — "Your  blessing,  father!"  The  patriarchal 
and  religious  usage  of  children  kissing  the  hands  of  their 
parents  at  night  and  morning,  and  when  meeting  after  an 
absence,  even  after  they  are  grown  up,  is  observed  in 
cultured  families.  And  out  of  the  family  circle,  people 
sometimes  kiss  the  hands  of  those  much  above  them  in 
rank  and  age.  I  once  saw  a  fashionable  Brazilian  lady 
and  grown  daughter  meet  and  speak  with  a  priest  in  the 
street,  and  the  daughter  kissed  the  priest's  hand.  In 
passing  a  church,  three  or  four  men  out  of  twenty  in  a 
street-car  will  raise  their  hats.  They  do  not  regard  it  as 
superstition,  but  as  a  delicate  expression  of  rehgious  senti- 
ment. So,  when  a  funeral  is  met,  men  usually  lift  their 
hats  as  the  hearse  passes  them.  There  are  but  few  re- 
ligious processions  in  the  street.  The  Emperor  and  cabi- 
net ministers  walk  in  that  of  Corpus  Christi,  but  it  com- 
mands few  marks  of  reverence  from  the  masses ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  generally  obstnicted  by  a  dense  crowd  of 


56       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

gazers.  The  attendance  at  funerals  is  principally  of  male 
friends.  Ladies,  even  nearest  relatives,  do  not  accom- 
pany the  remains  to  the  place  of  burial.  Male  friends, 
however,  in  large  numbers,  make  it  a  point  to  attend  the 
funeral  with  a  carriage  at  their  own  expense,  and  to  drive 
to  the  grave.  Many  funeral  processions  comprise  forty 
or  more  two-mule  open  carriages,  driven  at  a  rapid  pace, 
and  containing,  often,  but  one  man,  who  not  unlikely 
will  be  smoking. 

Thursday  and  Saturday  afternoons  are  popular  times 
for  weddings,  which  have  this  peculiarity,  that  the  car- 
riages are  lined  with  white  satin,  and  arc  drawn  by 
beautiful  white  horses  used  only  on  such  occasions.  Mar- 
riage is  a  religious  institution,  though  there  is  some  agita- 
tion for  making  the  rite  valid  as  a  civil  contract. 

The  Brazilians,  though  a  grave  people,  have  consider- 
able humor.  As  an  example — though  a  homely  one — the 
sneezing  of  a  goat,  of  which  there  are  many  at  Rio,  is  re- 
garded as  a  sign  of  fair  weather.  Sometimes,  when  a  per- 
son sneezes,  the  by-stander  laughingly  says,  "  We  will  have 
good  weather."  They  are,  likewise,  a  benevolent  people. 
It  is  not  very  uncommon,  when  a  family  of  children  have 
been  left  orphans,  for  an  uncle  or  some  near  relative  to 
adopt  them  all  into  his  house,  and  provide  for  and  treat 
them  as  members  of  his  own  family.  Although  the  Brar 
zilians  observe  a  number  of  religious  holidays,  they  fortu- 
nately arc  not  without  some  political  or  national  holidays. 
It  is  useful  for  a  people  to  pause,  once  a  year  at  least,  and 
think  of  their  forefathers.  "  A  people,"  said  Mr.  Burke, 
''will  never  look  forward  to  posterity  who  nev^er  look 
backward  to  their  ancestors."  The  anniversary  of  the  in- 
dependence of  the  empire  is  the  Yth  of  September,  and, 
though  it  may  occur  on  Sunday,  as  did  the  sixty- third 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  57 

anniversary,  in  1884,  the  Brazilians  do  not,  on  that  ac- 
count, postpone  the  customary  commemorative  exercises 
till  the  next  day.  Indeed,  the  official  exercises  are  partly 
religious  and  partly  secular.  The  observance  of  the 
sixty-third  anniversary  began  as  usual  at  the  capital  by  an 
artillery  salute  at  daybreak,  and  the  playing  of  the  na- 
tional hymn  by  several  bands  of  music  around  the  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  the  founder  of  the  empii-e,  Dom 
Pedro  I,  in  the  park  Constitution,  which  was  illumi- 
nated, decorated  with  flags  and  streamers,  and  which  had 
been  thronged  with  people  all  night.  The  forts  in  the 
harbor  also  thundered  forth  a  salute  in  the  morning,  at 
1  p.  M.,  and  again  at  6  p.  m.  ;  the  ships  of  war,  national 
and  foreign,  doing  the  same.  The  imperial  family  at- 
tended the  service  of  Te  Deum  at  the  imperial  chapel  at 
noon,  and  at  1  p.  isr.  held  a  reception  in  the  old  city  palace 
(which  is  close  to  the  chapel,  but  three  miles  from  the 
Emperor's  residence),  which  was  attended  by  a  large 
gathering  of  civil,  military,  and  naval  officers,  repre- 
sentatives of  literary,  scientific,  and  benevolent  socie- 
ties, and  by  private  individuals.  The  diplomatic  body, 
through  its  ranking  member,  the  Pope's  nuncio,  pre- 
sented a  congratulatory  address.  The  seventh  battalion 
of  infantry  served  as  a  guard  of  honor.  On  this  occasion 
it  was  noticed  that  when  the  Emperor  and  Empress  ar- 
rived at  the  palace,  loud  cheers  were  given  for  the  Em- 
peror and  independence,  owing  partly,  probably,  to  the 
anti-slavery  enthusiasm  of  the  time.  The  same  afternoon 
the  Emperor  and  Empress,  and  the  Princess  Imperial,  with 
her  husband,  Count  d'Eu,  were  present  at  a  meeting  of 
the  Working  Union,  in  the  theatre  of  San  Luiz,  where  a 
senator  presided ;  an  elaborate  discourse  was  pronounced, 
several  pieces  of  music  executed ;  a  poem,  dedicated  to  the 


58       BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Empress,  recited ;  also  an  address  delivered  bj  the  foreman 
of  tlie  government  macliine-sliops.  In  the  evening  the 
imperial  family  attended  an  opera  performance.  During 
the  day  a  regatta  took  place,  on  a  small  scale,  in  a  newly 
opened  boat-rink,  bands  of  mnsic  played  in  the  public 
parks,  and  sixteen  hundred  persons  visited  the  exhibition 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Ko  oration  was  deHvered 
on  the  memories  of  the  day,  yet  there  was  one  elaborate 
political  address  made  by  a  leading  abolitionist,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Abolition  Society,  his  subject  being  "  The 
Cause  of  the  Decadency  of  Brazil."  There  were  fewer 
fireworks  than  usual  on  festival-days,  and  good  order 
prevailed.  Flags  were  displayed  very  generally.  The 
weather  was  perfect. 

I  suppose  that  the  three  countries  in  which  popular 
government  has  sho\^Ti  the  greatest  vigor  are  England, 
France,  and  the  United  States ;  and  these  are  about  the 
only  countries  in  which  the  bar  has  had  free  scope, 
and  occupied  high  rank.  Great  constitutional  prin- 
ciples have  often  had  their  noblest  defense  in  the 
forum.  Although  the  legal  profession  is  esteemed  in 
Brazil,  and  there  are  learned  lawyers,  there  is  not  that 
opportunity  for  the  public  discussion  of  legal  questions 
that  there  is  in  the  countries  mentioned.  In  all  civil 
cases,  legal  arguments  are  submitted  in  writing.  There 
are  two  largely  attended  law-schools,  one  at  Pemambuco 
and  the  other  at  Sao  Paulo,  both  being  supported  by 
public  money.  On  my  visit  to  the  library  of  the  school 
at  Sao  Paulo,  I  took  particular  notice  to  see  what  English 
or  American  law-books  there  were,  and  was  surprised  to 
find  that  these  great  founts  of  jurisprudence  were  repre- 
sented by  about  half  a  dozen  antiquated  and  unimportant 
volumes.     There  is  no  public  law  library  at  Rio.     In  the 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  59 

National  Library,  the  only  edition  of  Blackstone's  "  Com- 
mentaries "  is  in  French.  It  seems  to  me  the  legal  pro- 
fession of  Brazil  is  ignorant  of  English  jurisprudence. 
It  has  never  felt  even  the  spray  of  the  great  fountain  of 
English  legal  literature,  much  less  quaffed  its  living 
waters.  However,  the  higher  tribunals  command  general 
respect. 

How  would  American  or  English  physicians  be  likely 
to  succeed  at  Rio  ?  The  first  part  of  this  question  has 
been  addressed  to  me  by  a  correspondent ;  and  my  an- 
swer is  that,  assuming  them  to  be  persons  of  real  skill 
and  merit,  they  would  in  time  meet  with  fair  and  possibly 
brilliant  success.  They  would,  however,  at  first  meet 
with  great  competition,  the  medical  profession  at  Rio 
being  crowded.  Whatever  might  have  been  their  pre- 
vious training  and  experience,  and  however  distinguished 
the  diplomas  they  might  bring,  they  would  still  have  to 
undergo  a  rigid  examination  conducted  in  the  Portuguese 
language,  to  test  their  quahfications  for  practice.  ITeither 
could  they  expect  to  receive  the  slightest  degree  of  favor, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  they  would  be  subjected  to  treat- 
ment exacting,  jealous,  and  suspicious.  The  same  will 
apply  to  all  foreigners  who  undertake  to  enter  any  of  the 
professions,  including  that  of  dentistry. 

Yery  fev/  physicians  drive  in  a  private  conveyance  to 
visit  their  patients,  and  none  support  styhsh  equipages ; 
they  sometimes  go  in  the  street-cars,  but  generally  in  a 
public  one-horse  chaise.  Their  usual  charge  for  a  day- 
visit  is  ten  milreis,  at  present  exchange  about  four  dollars, 
and  double  that  amount  for  a  night- visit.  There  are  two 
EngKsh  physicians  at  Rio  who  have  a  good  practice,  but 
there  is  no  American  physician. 

The  American  dentist  holds  his  own  in  Rio  just  as  he 


60      BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PEOSPECTS. 

does  in  all  other  large  foreign  cities.  There  are  half  a 
dozen  such  dentists  who  have  a  good  practice,  clearing 
twentj-odd  dollars  a  day,  but  working  very  hard  to  do  so. 
One  of  these  dentists,  a  young  man,  popular  professionally 
and  socially,  related  to  me  some  funny  experience  he  had 
at  a  social  visit  to  one  of  his  genteel  patients,  and  which 
illustrates  the  humor  and  freedom  of  Brazilian  society. 
It  was  an  evening  party  given  by  a  young  married  couple. 
The  gentlemen  were  out  on  the  garden  veranda  smoking 
and  drinking  healths.  Presently  the  young  host  proposed 
the  health  of  the  dentist,  when,  instead  of  exclaiming 
"  Vwa  I "  they  all  put  their  hands  up  to  their  faces  and 
began  to  scream,  as  if  undergoing  a  terrible  dental  opera- 
tion. 

There  are  two  lai'ge  medical  schools  in  Brazil  under 
the  control  of  and  supported  in  part  by  the  Government ; 
one  being  in  the  city  of  Bahia,  and  the  other  at  Hio  de 
Janeiro.  A  new  and  very  fine  medical  school-building  of 
granite  is  being  erected  at  Rio,  on  Botafogo  Bay,  com- 
manding a  grand  view  of  the  harbor.  The  course  of 
study  at  the  medical  schools  occupies  eight  years.  The 
graduation  is  a  gala  occasion.  The  students  who  graduate 
wear  black  silk  gowns,  white  cravats,  and  black  university 
caps.  Accompanied  by  their  near  relatives,  who,  with 
them,  have  looked  forward  for  so  many  years  to  this  their 
triumphal  day,  and  who  now  share  with  them  its  joys, 
they  drive  in  fine  carnages  to  church  and  attend  a  solemn 
mass.  And  for  my  part  I  admire  to  see  ceremonies  of 
solemnity  accompany  the  admission  of  people  to  this  noble 
and  important  profession.  ISTeither  in  city  nor  country  is 
the  Brazilian  physician  allowed  to  deal  out  and  deliver 
medicine.  He  must  write  a  prescription,  and  the  pre- 
scription must  be  filled  by  a  licensed  druggist,  who  re- 


LIFE   AND  MANNERS.  61 

cords  the  prescription  and  labels  tlie  medicine  with  its 
name  and  character.  In  the  country,  where  a  physician 
often  rides  horseback  twenty  miles  to  visit  a  patient,  this 
practice  may  be  very  inconvenient.  The  patient  can 
grow  much  worse  or  better  before  obtaining  medicine. 

Surgeons,  in  Brazil,  who  have  performed  successful 
operations  have  frequently  been  very  hberally  paid ;  and 
there  are  some  who  accumulate  fortunes.  There  is  a 
small  medical  periodical  at  Rio. 

Marriage  in  Brazil  is  still  regarded  as  a  religious  cere- 
mony and  not  as  a  civil  contract.  To  be  valid  it  must, 
therefore,  be  performed  by  a  duly  authorized  clergyman. 
If  one  or  both  of  the  parties  be  of  a  religion  other  than 
the  Catholic,  the  mai'riage  may  be  celebrated  by  a  duly 
authorized  pastor  or  clergyman  of  such  non-Catholic  relig- 
ion, but  in  every  case  must  be  legally  registered ;  also, 
prior  to  celebration,  the  intention  of  its  being  celebrated 
must  be  publicly  announced  in  the  church  on  three  Sun- 
days, or  published.  Those  belonging  to  the  Catholic 
Church  are,  of  course,  married  by  the  clergy  of  that 
church;  but,  in  the  larger  cities,  and  especially  in  the 
provinces  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Sao  Paulo,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  American  missionaries  as  well  as  of  clergymen 
of  the  Church  of  England,  Protestants  would  readily  ob- 
tain the  services  of  some  minister  of  that  faith. 

Americans  abroad  sometimes  suppose  that  a  diplomatic 
or  consular  officer  of  their  country  can  perform  the  mar- 
riage ceremony;  but  such  is  not  the  case.  It  is  usual, 
however,  and  in  conformity  with  regulations,  for  the  mar- 
riage of  an  American  abroad  to  be  performed  before  and 
in  the  presence  of  the  consular  officer.  In  such  case  he 
also  signs  the  record  of  the  marriage  as  a  witness.  He 
also,  at  request  of  the  parties,  afterward  furnishes  a  cer- 


62        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tificate  of  tlie  marriage,  setting  forth  the  names,  ages, 
places  of  birth  of  the  parties,  who  the  marriage  was  per- 
formed by,  where,  and  when ;  a  copy  of  which  he  delivers 
to  each  one  of  the  married  couple,  and  the  other  he  sends 
to  the  Department  of  State,  Washington. 

It  seems  that  British  consular  officers  in  Brazil  have 
authority  to  perform  the  marriage  ceremony;  and  it  is 
not  unusual  for  British  subjects  to  be  first  married  at 
their  consulate  and  then  again  by  a  clergyman. 

Some  inconvenience  has  arisen  in  the  province  of  Hio 
Grande  do  Sul,  from  notaries  pubHc  having  illegally  as- 
sumed to  marry  a  dozen  or  twenty  couples  of  non-Catholic 
German  immigrants.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  Brazilian 
Government,  through  its  Minister  of  the  Empire,  had  to 
declare  that  the  marriages  were  illegal,  though  the  parties 
who  were  married  were  innocent  of  any  wrong  intention, 
had  cohabited  for  some  years,  and  had  childi*en  born  to 
them.  The  marriages  could  be  legalized  by  the  Legisla- 
ture. 

Any  foreigner  living  in  Brazil  and  wishing  to  make  a 
will  must  make  it,  not  according  to  the  laws  of  his  own 
country,  but  according  to  the  laws  of  Brazil,  so  far  as  re- 
gards any  property,  real  or  personal,  of  his  that  may  be  in 
Brazil  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His  will  must  conform 
to  the  Brazilian  law  of  inheritance.  According  to  such 
law,  a  testator  can  dispose  of  one  third  of  aU  his  property 
as  he  pleases ;  but  ho  is  obliged  to  give  one  third  to  his 
widow  and  one  third  to  his  children.  If  he  leaves  no 
will,  one  half  of  the  property  goes  to  the  wife — in  case 
there  had  been  no  previous  marriage  settlement — and  the 
other  half  equally  to  the  children.  The  estate  which  a 
deceased  foreigner  may  leave  in  Brazil,  whether  real  or 
personal,  and  whether  he  leaves  a  will  or  not,  has  to  be 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  63 

settled  by  tlie  orphans'  court.  The  consular  oflScer  of  his 
country  is  allowed  to  examine  the  list  of  property  and 
watch  the  proceedings,  and  that  is  all.  The  taxes. and 
charges  to  which  such  property  is  subjected  are  regarded 
as  exceedingly  exorbitant.  A  Brazilian  in  Kio  worth  four 
hundred  thousand  dollars  was  lately  struck  by  a  falling 
piece  of  timber  and  suddenly  killed.  He  had  made  no 
will,  yet  left  two  illegitimate  sons  to  whom  he  was  much 
attached,  but  who  received  no  part  of  his  property. 

Debts  due  druggists,  physicians,  and  the  clergy  are 
privileged.  Tradesmen  readily  extend  credit  to  mechan- 
ics and  laborers  to  the  amount  of  half  their  wages.  In 
wholesale  trade  the  cash  buyer  gains  a  very  considerable 
advantage.  In  the  dry-goods  trade,  for  example,  a  credit 
of  twelve  months  is  granted,  but  if  th^  purchaser  pays 
cash  he  will  get  twelve  to  fourteen  per  cent  discount. 
Generally  all  products  of  the  countiy  are  sold  for  cash  or 
on  three  months'  credit.  Coffee  is  a  cash  article.  Fresh 
meat,  fresh  fish,  and  mechanical  work  command  cash.  In 
imports,  salt,  lumber,  petroleum,  copper,  lead,  and  codfish 
are  cash  articles.  Flour  is  sold  at  six  months'  credit,  or 
cash  at  six  per  cent  discount.  There  is  a  tendency  to 
increase  the  list  of  cash  articles.  There  is  a  system  of 
amicable  adjudication  in  which  a  plaintiff  at  the  court  of 
first  instance  or  of  original  jurisdiction  obtains  judgment 
for  so  much  of  a  claim  to  be  paid  monthly.  If  a  debtor 
fails  so  to  pay,  appeal  can  be  had  to  a  higher  court,  which 
gives  judgment  for  the  whole  amount.  Business  is  gen- 
erally conservative,  and  conducted  with  that  steady  and 
economical  spirit  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Portu- 
guese. The  accumulation  of  great  fortunes  is  not  of  fre- 
quent occurrence.  There  is  a  permanent  and  general 
bankrupt  law.     Bankruptcy  that  is  settled  according  to 


64      BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

legal  forms  is  not  frequent;  bnt  failures  attended  with 
private  settlement  are  frequent.  The  long-credit  system 
of  Brazil,  though  a  relic  of  old  and  slow  business  times, 
has  naturally  been  fostered  by  the  great  extent  of  the 
country  and  the  difficulties  of  communication.  It  is  a 
subject  of  frequent  complaint  in  all  business  circles. 

An  official  Brazilian  report  made  in  1881,  treating  of 
the  interior  of  the  province  of  Maranham,  says :  "  Who- 
ever has  seen  one  of  our  villages  has  seen  all,  because,  un- 
happily, in  all  is  noticed  an  absolute  lack  of  taste  in  the 
construction  of  the  dwellings,  showing  yet  more  promi- 
nently the  indolence  and  misery  which  everywhere  pre- 
vail. To  a  visitor  our  interior  looks  like  an  old  and  aban- 
doned country,  where  everything  is  going  to  decay,  and 
the  common  jiecessaries  of  life  are  not  to  be  met  with." 
M.  Andrade,  the  president  of  the  province,  in  his  mes- 
sage to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  February,  1884,  says, 
"  To  speak  frankly,  w^hat  is  needful  is  to  wrest  this  noble 
province  from  the  lethargy  which  oppresses  it."  This  is 
the  province  at  which  the  American  steamers  first  touch, 
on  their  way  to  Eio,  after  leaving  Pard.  Its  natural 
resources  are  important.  It  contains  several  navigable 
rivers,  and  most  of  the  population  is  in  towns  along  their 
banks.  A  civil  engineer  of  Brazil,  whose  home  is  in  this 
province,  in  giving  me  a  description  of  the  rivers,  and  of 
the  finely  wooded  and  fertile  tracts  accessible  therefrom, 
rather  dampened  the  delightful  impression  I  had  got  from 
his  statements,  by  telling  me,  in  answer  to  a  direct  ques- 
tion, that  he  had  once  seen  one  of  those  big,  cattle-swallow- 
ing serpents,  the  anaconda,  swimming  along  in  one  of 
these  rivers.  "  There  is  an  abundance  of  good  land,  but 
the  chief  obstacle  to  its  cultivation,"  writes  a  resident  of 
the  province,  is  "  the  want  of  proper  roads  and  an  enter- 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  65 

prising  population  to  open  the  country,  and  better  legis- 
lation for  inducing  and  facilitating  immigration." 

The  province  of  Ceara  is  remarkable  for  the  famine 
which  occurred  there  a  few  years  ago.  "Industry  and 
trade  generally,  in  the  province,"  writes  Mr.  George  Hol- 
derness,  American  consular  agent  at  the  port  of  Ceara, 
in  1884,  "have  made  no  progress  since  187T,  the  begin- 
ning of  the  great  drought.  Emigration  y/'6??;i  the  prov- 
ince, which  commenced  then,  has  since  continued  in  an 
increasing  degree,  up  to  the  beginning  of  1884."  It  is 
estimated  that  the  number  of  Cearense,  who  emigrated  to 
the  province  of  Amazonas,  alone,  amounted  to  thirty  thou- 
sand, many  of  whom  found  a  grave  on  the  banks  of  the 
Amazon.  The  interior  of  the  province  is  thinly  peopled, 
and  a  state  of  desolation  prevails.  The  agricultural  class 
in  the  interior  are  represented  as  having  no  means  of  rec- 
reation to  speak  of.  Horseback-riding  is  the  only  exer- 
cise they  take.  For  amusement  the  men  play  cards,  and 
also  play  on  the  viola  or  guitar.  There  is  no  national  game 
among  the  boys.  The  poor  people  have  been  benefited 
by  the  export  of  goat-skins,  a  trade  started  recently.  Over 
two  hundred  thousand  of  these  were  shipped  to  the  United 
States  in  1884,  and  nearly  as  many  to  Europe.  The  ex- 
port of  oranges  to  the  United  States  has  lately  commenced. 
The  principal  export  from  Ceara  is  cotton,  of  which  ten 
million  pounds  were  exported  in  1884.  The  interior  is 
mostly  composed  of  highlands,  which  are  used  for  cattle- 
breeding.  Since  the  white  settlements  began,  there  have 
been  four  or  five  fatal  droughts  there,  the  last  and  one 
of  the  worst  of  which  occurred  in  18YT-1878.  The  two 
previous  years  there  had  been  an  excess  of  rain.  By 
March,  18 77,  the  bishop  ordered  prayers  in  all  the  churches 
for  rain.     Weeks  and  months  passed,  while  the  situation 


Qe        BRAZIL:    ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

was  growing  worse.  The  crops  failed,  and  bj  April  and 
May  the  poorer  people  began  to  flock  to  the  villages  for 
food.  The  forage  had  disappeared,  and  the  stock-raisers 
began  to  slaughter  their  cattle  for  their  hides  and  tallow. 
There  was  local  relief  as  long  as  the  generously  disposed 
had  the  means.  Some  provisions  were  brought  in  from 
neighboring  provinces  on  the  backs  of  animals.  Such 
relief,  of  course,  could  only  be  very  limited.  The  terri- 
tory was  then,  and  is  now,  so  unprovided  with  good  roads 
and  means  of  transportation,  that  a  drought,  which  under 
different  circumstances  could  have  been  tided  over  with- 
out much  suffering,  reached  there  and  then  the  propor- 
tions of  a  tragic  and  melancholy  famine.  By  the  middle 
of  1877  many  thousands  of  the  interior  inhabitants  were 
fleeing,  half  naked  and  in  a  state  of  destitution,  toward 
the  coast  cities.  Many  perished  on  the  way,  but  many 
thousands  more,  who  arrived  at  places  where  there  was 
food,  subsequently  died  of  disease.  Probably  it  is  quite 
within  bounds  to  estimate  the  mortality  in  the  province, 
from  the  famine,  at  two  hundred  thousand.  The  General 
Assembly  of  Brazil  finally  voted  a  large  sum  of  money  for 
the  relief  of  the  destitution. 

An  observing  friend,  who  recently  traveled  in  the 
province  of  Parana,  has  given  me  his  impressions  of  the 
condition  and  manners  of  the  people  there.  In  his  opin- 
ion, the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  tends  to  malce  the  in- 
habitants indolent.  Each  head  of  a  family  plants  a  small 
plot  of  ground,  whose  produce  may  last  a  year.  He  does 
not  try  to  do  more.  He  does  not  raise  crops  for  the  mar- 
ket. Nearly  all  of  the  commerce  of  the  province  is  in 
the  yerha  mate  but  even  this  they  do  not  cultivate.  It 
grows  wild,  and  the  people  who  bring  it  to  town  do  so 
from  the  necessity  of  having  to  procure  certain  neces- 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  67 

saries.  The  Idglier  class  is  also  indolent,  going  to  bed 
early  and  rising  late.  What  gives  life  to  the  town  is 
the  coming  and  going  of  the  colonists  in  selling  milk  and 
other  small  things.  There  are  scarcely  any  amusements. 
On  Sundays  people  have  balls,  and  now  and  then  church 
festivals.  The  feeling  toward  immigrants  and  foreigners 
is  kind.  Curitiba,  the  capital,  is  perhaps  the  only  place 
in  the  empire  where  Protestants  have  been  allowed  to 
build  a  house  of  worship  with  the  exterior  of  a  church, 
namely,  with  a  church-steeple.  The  work  was  stopped  by 
the  Government,  on  account  of  being  against  the  law, 
but  the  local  sentiment  tolerated  it,  and  the  church  has 
been  completed.  The  houses  at  Curitiba  are  built  of 
brick  or  pine-wood,  principally  of  the  latter,  and  the 
roofs  are  shingled  with  the  native  pine.  The  furniture 
is  made  of  the  same. 

Young  women  marry  at  different  ages,  from  thirteen 
years  upward.  If  the  parents  are  rich,  they  give  a  dower ; 
otherwise,  they  merely  furnish  the  wedding  outfit,  con- 
sisting of  considerable  clothing  and  linen.  Young  women 
of  the  middle  class,  besides  helping  in  the  work  of 
the  house,  devote  themselves  to  sewing  and  sometimes 
even  washing  and  ironing.  There  are  few  books  which 
a  young  girl  can  read  in  Brazil,  because,  as  a  rule,  the 
novels  are  not  of  a  very  high  moral  tone.  There  are  no 
story-books,  or  anything  of  the  sort,  for  the  young ;  they 
either  read  nothing,  or  else  read  novels  in  books  or  from 
newspapers. 

There  is  a  normal  school  at  Curitiba,  kept  in  a 
pretty  good  building,  but  its  furniture  is  scanty.  There 
are  a  few  maps  on  the  wall,  one  or  two  blackboards,  and 
nothing  more.  The  hbrary  is  not  small,  but  the  books 
are  of  little  value,  and  apparently  were  donated  by  per- 


68        BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

sons  wlio  wished  to  get  rid  of  them.  There  is  a  private 
school  kept  by  the  German  pastor  in  the  German  Prot- 
estant church,  with  a  large  attendance.  The  seats  are 
mere  benches. 

The  dress  of  the  people  is  in.  the  same  style  as  at  Eio, 
except  that  perhaps  the  people  are  not  so  particular  as  to 
cleanliness  and  good  material. 

The  surface  in  Parand  is  divided  into  two  distinct 
portions,  the  coast  belt  and  the  interior  table-land.  As- 
cending the  mountains,  forest-covered,  we  come  to  a 
table-land  entirely  flat,  at  an  elevation  of  three  thousand 
feet,  and  which  is  studded  here  and  there  with  pine-for- 
ests. Going  from  Paranagua  to  Curitiba,  the  scenery  is 
very  beautiful  and  grand. 

Mr.  Bigg-Wither,  an  English  engineer  employed  two 
or  three  years  on  a  railway  survey  in  the  wilds  of  Pa- 
rand,  describes,  in  his  interesting  work,  "  Pioneering  in 
South  Brazil,"  a  visit  in  1872  to  the  home  of  a  Brazilian 
landed  proprietor,  who  represented  a  type  of  the  ordinary- 
backwoods  planter  and  stock-raiser,  but  who  at  that  date 
was  a  generation — one  would  think  a  century — behind 
the  intelligent  and  cultivated  class  of  planters.  Mr.  Bigg- 
Wither,  traveling  with  assistants  and  supplies  loaded  on 
mules,  had  got  within  about  a  day's  march  of  his  destined 
headquarters,  Colonia  Thereza,  in  the  great  forest-covered 
valley  of  the  Ivahy.  He  says :  "  We  followed  Sr.  An- 
drade  into  the  house,  and  found  ourselves  in  a  little  tim- 
ber-built room,  of  about  fourteen  feet  by  twelve  feet, 
with  doors  in  each  of  the  walls  opening  into  other 
apartments,  whose  mysteries  will  presently  be  explained. 
Benches  were  ranged  all  around  the  walls,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  spaces  left  for  the  doorways.  The  floor  was 
the  bare  earth,  beaten  hard,  and  on  it  stood,  in  the  mid- 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  69 

die  of  the  room,  one  solitary  table.  There  were  no  win- 
dows, and  w^hen  the  door  was  shnt,  the  light  could  only 
come  in  through  the  chinks  in  the  w^alls  and  roof,  which, 
however,  seemed  large  enough  to  render  further  provision 
for  light  and  air  unnecessary.  Eound  these  walls,  which 
were  all  built  of  timbers  similar  in  shape  to  an  ordinary 
railway-sleeper,  the  convex  side  being  outward,  were 
hung  all  the  paraphernalia  which  pertained  to  the  every- 
day occupations  of  th^  inmates.  Lassos,  whips,  spurs, 
saddles  and  bridles,  weak-looking  guns,  and  tawdry  pis- 
tols, took  up  most  of  the  available  space,  and  indicated 
accurately  enough  what  was  the  life  led  by  our  host  and 
the  male  portion  of  his  family.  The  door  opposite  the 
entrance  by  which  we  had  come  in  was  open,  disclosing 
a  lean-to  shed,  in  which  an  atrociously  ugly  negress  was 
engaged  in  crushing  coffee  with  a  wooden  pestle  and 
mortar.  The  door  on  the  right  opened  into  a  second 
lean-to  shed,  in  which,  through  the  interstices  of  the  wall, 
appeared  a  fire  on  the  ground,  with  various  pots  and 
pans  around  it,  over  which  a  young  and  good-looking  girl 
was  presiding.  This  information  we  obtained  inadver- 
tently, and  evidently  not  altogether  with  the  consent  of 
Sr.  Andrade,  by  our  happening  to  advance  farther  into 
the  room  than  was  intended,  and  thus  obtaining  a  full 
view  of  this  domestic  apartment  and  of  its  occupant 
through  the  open  door.  The  third  door  was  of  better 
make  than  the  ones  referred  to,  and  was  furnished  with  a 
lock  and  key. 

"  Our  host's  first  act,  after  offering  us  seats,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  entrance,  was  to  present  a  cigarette, 
made  of  tobacco  rolled  up  in  an  Indian-corn  leaf,  to  each, 
to  light  which  a  young,  haK-naked  slave-boy  appeared  on 
the  scene  and  handed  round  a  brand  out  of  the  fire.     The 


70       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

senliora,  a  cheerful,  motherlj-looking  old  lady,  now  came 
into  the  room,  and  added  her  welcomes  to  those  already 
given  by  her  husband.  Pedro,  who  seemed  to  be  more 
or  less  a  privileged  person  in  the  house,  had  a  short  con- 
versation with  her,  and  she  went  out  and  presently  re- 
turned, accompanied  by  the  negress,  bearing  a  large 
wooden  bowl  full  of  delicious-looking  new  milk,  a  bever- 
age which  Pedro  had  no  doubt  told  her  would  be  an  ac- 
ceptable offering  to  us.  After  the  milk,  coffee  in  tiny 
cups  was  brought  in  and  handed  round  to  us  by  the 
senhora  herself.  When  we  had  in  this  manner  taken  off 
the  edge  of  our  fatigues,  conversation  began,  Pedro  act- 
ing as  interpreter.  .  .  .  Andrade  himself  was  an  old  man 
of  about  sixty  years,  and  allowed  his  wife  to  do  most  of  the 
talking  for  him  when  she  was  in  the  room.  One  of  her 
first  questions  was  to  know  whether  we  were  married ; 
and,  on  hearing  that  we  were  still  in  the  full  enjoyment 
of  our  freedom,  she  proceeded  to  enlarge  upon  the  de- 
lights of  a  married  life,  informing  us,  at  the  same  time, 
that  she  had  five  unmarried  daughters !  After  this  pretty 
broad  hint  of  what  was  expected  of  us,  we  of  course  ex- 
pressed a  wish  to  then  and  there  make  the  acquaintance 
of  these  fair  members  of  the  family.  Her  face  became 
suddenly  grave  when  this  request  was  translated  to  her 
by  Pedro,  and  for  a  moment  her  flow  of  words  was 
stopped,  and  I  feared  that  a  mistake  had  been  inad- 
vertently made.  She  looked  hesitatingly  at  her  husband, 
who  had  remained  silently  puffing  at  his  cigarette  during 
this  conversation,  and  he  said  something  which  we  did 
not  understand,  but  which  had  the  effect  of  at  once  dis- 
pelling her  momentary  gravity.  The  old  man  got  up, 
and,  going  to  the  locked  door  and  turning  the  key,  opened 
it  and  disappeared  into  a  dark  chamber  within.     Almost 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  71 

immediately,  however,  he  returned,  saying,  ^The  girls 
are  not  accustomed  to  see  strangers,  and  are  afraid.' 
Meanwhile,  the  senhora,  who  was  now  evidently  deter- 
mined that  her  daughters  should  show  themselves,  had, 
in  her  turn,  disappeared  into  the  secret  chamber,  from 
which  various  sounds  of  whispering  and  suppressed  gig- 
gling were  now  proceeding.  Presently  the  senhora  re- 
appeared, leading  one  very  modest-looking  damsel  of 
about  eighteen  or  nineteen  years  of  age,  and  closely  fol- 
lowed by  three  others,  apparently  somewhat  younger. 
All  appeared  to  be  overwhelmed  with  intense  shyness, 
and  an  almost  hysterical  desire  to  laugh.  After  a  formal 
and  separate  introduction  of  each  one — be  it  noted  that 
the  lady  was  here  introduced  to  the  gentleman — they  all 
retired  back  again  into  the  secret  chamber,  and  their  papa 
once  more  turned  the  key  upon  them.  At  this  time  we 
were  ignorant  of  the  custom,  which  I  afterward  found  to 
be  so  general  in  these  out-of-the-way  parts,  of  keeping 
the  women,  or  rather  the  daughters,  of  the  family,  locked 
up  hke  wild  beasts ;  consequently  we  did  not  hesitate  to 
express  our  wonder,  and  to  ask  why  it  was  done  in  this 
case.  Sr.  Andrade,  in  reply,  said  it  was  the  custom  of 
the  country,  and  that  he  had  never  thought  of  bringing 
his  daughters  up  in  any  other  way.  I  asked,  '  Did  they 
never  go  out  ? '  *  'No,  never,'  he  replied ;  they  had  all 
learned  riding  when  they  were  children,  and  since  then 
they  had,  according  to  custom,  been  shut  up  in  the  house, 
where  they  would  remain  until  husbands  had  been  ob- 
tained for  them.  .  .  .  Some  of  us  promising  to  breakfast 
with  the  Andrades  the  following  morning,  we  retired  to 
our  tents  for  the  night,  wondering  much  that  a  man,  w^ho 
prided  himself  on  being  the  owner  of  an  estate  of  more 
than  thirty  square  miles  in  extent,  and  who  also  possessed 


Y2        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

some  hundreds  of  head  of  cattle,  mules,  and  horses,  could 
be  content  to  pass  his  life  in  so  wretched  a  habitation  as 
was  his,  living  in  a  style  not  better  than  the  poorest  ccv- 
loclo.  ...  In  the  morning,  on  going  out  of  our  tent,  we 
found  Andrade  already  standing  outside  his  door,  waiting 
for  our  appearance  to  summon  us  in  to  partake  of  cof- 
fee and  smoke  a  cigarette,  in  which  manner  a  Brazilian 
fazendeiro  invariably  begins  his  day,  breakfast  being  usu- 
ally deferred  till  ten  or  eleven  o'clock.  ...  On  returning 
from  our  ride  at  about  ten  o'clock,  I  went  in  to  breakfast 
with  the  Andrades,  according  to  promise.  The  first  dish 
offered  consisted  of  cubes  of  hard  meat,  out  of  which  all 
flavor  and  goodness  had  been  extracted  by  a  process  of 
cooking  unknown  to  me,  and  withal  so  tough  that  no 
teeth  could  meet  through  them,  the  whole  floating  about 
in  some  thin,  greasy-looking  fluid  which  our  hosts  called 
caldo,  but  which  seemed  to  be  nothing  more  than  greasy 
hot  water.  A  second  dish  consisted  of  black  beans,  like- 
wise swimming  in  greasy  caldo.  Cabbage,  cut  into  fine 
shreds,  formed  a  third  dish ;  while  farinha  was  handed 
round  to  be  put  into  each  individual's  plate,  to  absorb  the 
greasy  liquor,  and  thus  facilitate  the  conveyance  of  it  to 
the  mouth. 

"  !N'otwithstanding  a  sharp  appetite,  engendered  by  a 
three  hours'  ride  in  the  fresh  mountain  air,  my  stomach 
revolted  from  the  nauseous  mess  in  my  plate,  and  vain 
were  my  attempts  to  get  any  of  it  down.  After  this 
came  a  dish  of  curded  milk,  which,  when  eaten  with 
sugar  and  fa/rinha,  is  really  not  objectionable.  "Water 
and  rum  were  then  handed  round  to  drink,  and  thus  the 
meal  came  to  an  end.  Before  rising  from  the  table,  how- 
ever, Andrade  and  Jaca  (his  son)  each  filled  his  mouth 
with  water,   which,   after   going   through  various   sug- 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  Y3 

gestive  contortions  of  cheeks  and  lips  for  about  half  a 
minute,  they  presently  squirted  out,  broadcast,  over  the 
hard-beaten  mud  floor.  Immediately  after  this,  coffee 
and  cigarettes  were  handed  round  by  the  senhora  herself, 
she  having  all  through  the  meal  remained  standing,  in 
attendance  upon  us  and  upon  her  husband  and  son. 

"  The  meal  above  described  may  be  taken,  to  a  great 
extent,  as  typical  of  the  entertainment  offered  to  the 
traveler  at  the  houses  of  all  the  ruder  planters  of  the  re- 
moter districts  of  the  province.  What  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  eat  themselves,  they  give  you — nothing  more 
and  nothing  less.  They  might  live  like  princes,  with 
such  a  wealth  of  nature  around  them,  but,  in  the  great 
majority  of  instances,  they  certainly  seem  to  prefer  to 
live  Hke — pigs.  Their  hospitality,  however,  must  be 
taken  to  cover  a  multitude  of  sins.  When  once  a  trav- 
eler can  get  accustomed  to  the  food  of  the  country,  there 
is  no  trait  that  he  more  appreciates  in  the  character  of 
the  people  than  their  open  and  ungrudging  hospitality  to 
all  comers." 

A  kind  of  ball  which  the  same  author  attended  at  the 
Colonia  Thereza  village,  situated  in  a  fertile  region,  yet 
stagnant  from  lack  of  communication  with  the  outer 
world,  is  thus  described  :  "  On  entering  the  house  at  which 
the  entertainment  was  to  be  held,  we  immediately  found 
ourselves  in  a  large,  mud-floor  room,  ranged  round  the 
walls  of  which  were  all  the  youth  and  beauty  of  the  vil- 
lage, smartly  dressed  in  clean  cotton  prints,  all  evidently 
'  got  up '  for  the  occasion.  In  the  center  of  this  room, 
which  was  bare  of  furniture,  the  young  men  of  the  vil- 
lage, to  the  number  of  about  two  dozen,  were  grouped 
together,  chatting  and  smoking  cigarettes,  with  their  hats 
on  their  heads,  to  all  appearance  utterly  oblivious  of  the 
7 


74:        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

presence  of  the  ladies.  Our  entry  seemed  to  be  tlie  signal 
for  tlie  commencement  of  the  entertainment.  Two  banjos 
struck  up,  and  now,  for  the  first  time,  the  men  began  to 
turn  their  attention  to  the  demure  but  conscious-looking 
maidens,  who  had  up  to  the  present  moment  been  silently 
awaiting  their  pleasure.  One  by  one  each  man  chose  a 
partner,  till  ten  couples  were  made  up.  These  ten  couples 
now  formed  a  circle  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  the 
dance  commenced. 

"  With  slow  and  rhythmic  beat  the  men  first  began  to 
keep  time  to  the  banjos,  alternately  advancing  toward  and 
retiring  from  the  center  of  the  ring,  the  women  also 
stamping  with  their  feet  but  not  advancing.  At  the  end 
of  each  dozen  bars  or  so  of  the  music,  all  with  one  accord, 
both  men  and  women,  gave  three  loud  claps  of  the  hands, 
which  was  the  signal  for  the  moment  of  a  greater  display 
of  energy  in  the  movements  of  the  body,  and  a  more  vig- 
orous stamping  of  feet  upon  the  hard  mud  floor.  All  at 
once  one  of  the  men  dancers,  in  a  rich  full  voice,  struck 
up  an  ^  impromptu '  stanza,  in  beautiful  time  and  harmony 
Avith  the  music,  the  last  words  of  which  were  taken  up 
and  repeated  in  chorus  by  all.  Once  more  vocal  silence, 
while  the  monotonous  tum,  tum,  tum,  of  the  banjos,  and 
the  noise  of  the  stamping  of  feet,  went  on  as  before. 
Then  again,  a  second,  wild,  'impromptu'  stanza  burst 
forth  from  another  of  the  dancers,  again  to  be  taken  up  in 
chorus  by  all.  We  observed  on  each  of  these  occasions 
that  the  dancers  all  turned  their  eyes  upon  us,  as  though 
we  were  the  persons  they  were  addressing.  We  presently 
found  this  to  be  the  case,  one  of  our  interpreters,  who  was 
present,  coming  up  and  informing  us  that  we  were  being 
invited  to  'join  the  dance.'  Nothing  loath,  we  each  chose 
a  mlling  damsel  from  the  still  unexhausted  row  of  wall- 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  75 

flowers,  and  joined  the  untiring  ring  in  the  middle  of  the 
room. 

"  During  what  seemed  interminable  minutes,  we  too 
had  now  to  beat  our  feet  upon  the  hard  floor,  swing  our 
arms  and  bodies,  and  clap  our  hands.  As  the  dance  went 
on,  the  excitement  waxed  stronger,  the  impromptu' 
shouts  became  yells,  the  once  graceful  swaying  of  the 
bodies  of  the  performers  was  changed  into  violent  contor- 
tions, and  all  the  characteristics  of  a  Korth  American  In- 
dian war-dance  came  into  play.  Curling  and  I  now 
quietly  slipped  out  of  the  ranks  of  the  dancers,  and  re- 
tired unnoticed  to  the  background.  The  atmosphere  of 
the  room  was  full  of  the  smoke  of  cigarettes,  through 
which  the  dim  bees-wax  tapers,  here  and  there  stuck  upon 
the  face  of  the  walls  around,  cast  a  lurid  glare.  Suddenly 
the  music  ceased ;  the  tired  fingers  of  the  minstrels  had 
given  way  at  last,  and  the  dance  abruptly  came  to  a  con- 
clusion. The  partnership  between  each  couple  was  im- 
mediately dissolved,  without  ceremony  of  any  kind.  The 
man  turned  on  his  heel  without  look,  word,  or  salutation ; 
and  the  forlorn  damsel,  her  service  or  presence  being  no 
longer  necessary,  once  more  retired  to  her  place  against 
the  wall,  there  to  bloom  unheeded  till  another  dance 
should  be  commenced. 

"Refreshments  of  rum,  water,  and  cigarettes  were 
now  handed  round  by  the  host  to  us  and  to  the  men  gen- 
erally, who  had  again  grouped  themselves  in  threes  and 
fours  about  the  middle  of  the  room.  During  the  dance 
no  conversation  had  been  carried  on  between  the  partners, 
and  now  no  sign  of  courtesy  or  deference  was  bestowed 
upon  the  poor,  forsaken  damsels  by  their  late  partners.  It 
appeared  to  me  that  this  neglect  proceeded  not  so  much 
from  any  indifference  or  want  of  gallantry  on  the  part  of 


^Q       BRAZIL:    ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

the  men,  as  from  an  enforced  cnstom,  wliicli  seemed  to 
forbid  even  the  slightest  appearance  of  intimacy  between 
the  sexes.  A  longer  acquaintance  with  this  backwoods 
colony  was  not  convincing  of  the  perfect  efficacy  of  these 
strict  rules  of  its  society.  Nevertheless,  in  default  of  a 
higher  standard  of  education  being  given  to  the  women, 
they  are  no  doubt  necessary." 

It  seems  that  when  a  stranger  comes  to  one  of  these 
backwoods  settlements  the  people  out  of  compliment — 
possibly  in  part  for  curiosity — come  to  take  a  look  at  him. 
The  first  day  Mr.  Bigg- Wither  arrived  at  Colonia  Thereza, 
he  dined  in  the  evening  with  the  director,  and  says: 
"  While  we  were  at  dinner,  the  same  curious  custom,  with 
which  we  were  first  made  acquainted  at  Ponta  Grossa,  of 
the  people  of  the  place  paying  us  complimentary  visits, 
was  observed ;  at  one  time  during  the  meal  there  being  as 
many  as  twenty  individuals  standing  or  squatting  round  the 
walls  of  the  room,  staring  silently  with  might  and  main. 
They  neither  offered  to  say  a  word,  nor,  as  far  as  I  could 
tell  from  their  manner,  did  they  expect  to  be  addressed 
themselves.  I  really  began  to  feel  quite  uncomfortable 
under  their  prolonged  and  silent  stare.  At  length,  how- 
ever, somewhat  to  my  relief,  they  began  to  depart  one  by 
one,  till,  by  the  time  dinner  was  concluded,  they  had  all 
disappeared.  We  talked  to  the  director  about  them  after- 
ward, and  he  told  us  they  were  all  residents  of  the  place, 
and  that  they  merely  wished  to  compliment  us." 

Captain  Burton,  in  his  graphic  work  the  "  Highlands 
of  Brazil,"  thus  describes  the  planter's  life  as  he  saw  it  in 
the  province  of  Minas-Geraes  in  1867 :  "  The  life  of  the 
planter  is  easily  told.  He  rises  at  dawn  and  his  slave- 
valet  brings  him  coffee  and  wash-hand  basin  with  ewer, 
both  of  solid  silver.    After  strolling  about  the  mill,  which 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  77 

often  begins  work  at  2  a.  m.,  and  riding  over  the  estate  to 
see  that  the  hands  are  not  idhng,  he  returns  between  nine 
and  eleven  with  his  family,  and,  if  a  bachelor,  with  his 
head  men  to  breakfast.  The  sunny  hours  are  passed  either 
in  a  siesta  aided  by  a  glass  of  English  ale — there  is  noth- 
ing English  in  it  but  the  name — in  reading  the  newspa- 
pers, or  in  receiving  visits.  The  dinner  is  between  3  p.  m. 
and  4  r.  m.,  sometimes  later ;  it  is  invariably  followed  by 
coffee  and  tobacco.  Often  there  is  another  relay  of  coffee 
before  sitting  down  to  tea,  biscuits  and  butter,  or  con- 
serves, and  the  day  ends  with  chat  in  some  cool  place. 
The  monotony  ...  is  broken  by  an  occasional  visit  to  a 
neighbor,  or  to  the  nearest  country  town." 

Santa  Catharina,  the  most  southerly  but  one  of  Bra- 
zil's twenty  provinces,  contains  the  land  granted  as  the 
Princess  Imperial's  marriage-portion,  and  on  which  is  a 
colony  under  charge  of  an  American.  There  are  several 
colonies  in  the  province,  and  it  possesses  a  diversified  sur- 
face, and  a  salubrious  climate,  like  all  of  Brazil's  highlands. 
Desterro,  its  port  and  capital,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  in 
time  of  war  is  used  as  Brazil's  southern  naval  station. 
Five  to  nine  steamships  per  month,  each  way,  north  and 
south,  call  there.  The  late  American  consular  agent 
there,  Mr.  Comsett,  in  a  report  published  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  State,  gave  the  name  and  character  of  thirty-eight 
different  kinds  of  valuable  timber  growing  in  that  prov- 
ince, and  states  that  there  are  many  other  kinds.  The 
province  has  been  called  the  paradise  of  Brazil.  There  is 
an  abundance  of  fish  and  beef,  bnt  otherwise  Mr.  Com- 
sett found  the  expense  of  living  dear. 

I  have  lately  obtained,  direct,  some  information  rela- 
tive to  the  German  colonies  of  Blumenau,  Brusque,  and 
D.  Francisca,  and  which,  though  from  a  source  very 


Y8       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

friendly  to  the  colonies,  I  consider  reliable.  They  are 
distant  eight  days  by  steamer  southwest  from  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  The  colony  of  Blumenan  was  founded  by  Dr. 
Blnmenau  in  1849,  and  occupies  mountainous  land,  with 
red-colored  and  somewhat  sandy  soil,  naturally  produc- 
ing forest  near  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Itajahy  River. 
Its  markets  are  Desterro,  Santos,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
as  eight  steamers  a  month  run  between  these  points,  there 
ought  to  be  reasonable  rates  of  transportation.  However, 
it  costs  twenty-six  dollars  for  first-class  passage  on  a 
steamer  from  Rio  to  the  nearest  port  for  this  colony.  The 
colonists  bought  their  land  at  the  rate  of  about  two  mills 
a  square  hraga,  they  each  hold  on  an  average  about  one 
hundred  alqueiras  (six  hundred  acres),  and  about  half  the 
number  have  fully  paid  for  their  land.  The  Brazilian 
Government  furnished  money  to  build  roads.  There  is 
a  road  leading  from  Itajahy  on  the  sea-coast,  by  the  way 
of  Brusque,  to  Blumenau,  and  there  are  also  some  steam- 
boats running  on  the  Itajahy  River.  These  colonists  are 
principally  Protestant  Germans  from  North  Germany. 
They  do  not  grow  coffee ;  their  principal  crops  are  sugar- 
cane, Indian  com,  beans,  and  rice;  and  they  raise  cattle 
and  hogs.  The  houses  of  the  colonists  are  of  wood  and 
brick,  one  story  high  with  floor  overhead,  and  situated 
about  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  yards  apart.  Each 
family  has  on  an  average  a  dozen  cows,  thirty  to  forty 
pigs,  one  to  four  horses,  a  few  sheep,  and  a  good  deal  of 
poultry,  chickens,  turkeys,  pigeons,  etc.  The  wages  for 
men's  labor  are  forty  cents  to  a  dollar  a  day  of  ten  hours' 
work.  Servant-girls  are  paid  four  to  six  dollars  per 
month.  There  is  an  abundance  of  food,  the  climate  is 
excellent,  and  good  health  prevails.  I  am  assured  that  a 
colonist  working  hai'd,  yet  living  well,  will  easily  pay  for 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  79 

his  land  and  accumulate  a  capital  of  twelve  hundred  to 
twenty-four  hundred  dollars  in  eight  or  ten  years.  For 
social  diversion  the  colonists  have  the  usual  German 
amusements.  There  are  two  or  three  singing  societies,  a 
shooting  society,  also  occasional  balls.  There  are  also  fish- 
ing and  hunting.  At  both  Blumenau  and  D.  Francisca 
there  is  a  theatre,  with  a  performance  in  German  once  or 
twice  a  month.  There  are  two  newspapers  pubhshed  at 
Blumenau,  and  one  at  D.  Francisca,  all  in  the  German 
language.  The  postal  service  is  regular.  There  are  two 
post-offices,  which  have  to  accommodate  a  pretty  exten- 
sive region.  Instruction  in  the  schools  is  in  the  German 
language.  Teachers  receive  eight  to  sixteen  dollars  a 
month,  and  land  and  house  free.  Attendance  of  children 
from  eight  to  fourteen  years  of  age  is  very  regular. 

The  German  colonists  have  from  six  to  eight  churches, 
nearly  all  Protestant,  and  sustained  by  themselves.  At 
Blumenau  the  Italians  and  Portuguese  each  have  a  Catho- 
lic church.  With  one  exception,  the  Catholic  churches 
are  sustained  by  the  colonists  themselves.  The  Italians 
in  the  settlement  are  from  the  north  of  Italy.  Only  a 
very  few  of  the  colonists  are  naturalized,  but  they  are  of 
course  subject  to  Brazilian  laws,  with  the  exception  of  be- 
ing called  into  the  military  service.  As  a  rule,  they  appear 
to  be  contented  with  their  lot.  The  colony  of  Blumenau 
has  a  municipal  organization,  and  belongs  politically  to 
the  first  election  district  of  the  j)rovince.  There  are  sev- 
eral hotels  at  the  center  of  the  colony,  which  furnish  a 
good  table  at  less  than  a  dollar  a  day — "  drinking  extra.'' 
The  venders  also  furnish  lodging.  There  are  no  slaves 
in  the  colony. 

In  the  interior  of  Brazil,  and  among  the  more  numerous 
class  of  people,  the  habits  and  accommodations  of  living 


80       BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

are  very  primitive,  and  scarcely  above  a  half -civilized  con- 
dition. The  floors  of  the  dwellings  are  nothing  but  the 
natural  ground.  Household  utensils  are  very  scanty. 
People  eat  with  their  fingers,  instead  of  with  knives  and 
forks,  and  are  expert  in  throwing  the  food  into  their 
mouths.  Women  seldom  sit  at  the  table  with  the  men, 
especially  if  there  be  a  stranger  present ;  but,  with  the 
children,  will  take  their  meals  sitting  on  the  ground,  the 
food  being  spread  on  a  dry  hide,  instead  of  on  a  cloth. 
Some  of  the  habits,  such  as  bending  the  head  down,  and 
wiping  the  mouth,  after  eating,  on  the  bare  table,  are  re- 
pulsive enough.  For  a  little  fun,  after  a  jovial  meal,  one 
of  the  naked  children — five  or  six  years  old  it  may  be — 
will  be  put  upon  the  table,  and  made  to  frolic  about  by  dif- 
ferent ones  giving  it  an  amiable  slap.  Women  belonging 
to  the  middle  class,  in  the  rural  districts,  make  visits  to 
their  neighbors  barefooted.  The  clothing  of  men  is  fre- 
quently nothing  more  than  a  shirt  and  a  pair  of  trousers. 
If  it  is  cold,  they  will  wear  the  same  red  woolen  blanket 
that  they  use  for  cover  at  night.  Tlie  hammock  is  com- 
monly used,  instead  of  a  bed,  and  is  much  the  more  tidy 
article  of  furniture,  it  being  the  custom  to  wash  it  twice 
a  month.  The  ordinary  hammock  is  of  cotton,  woven  by 
hand  at  home,  and  quite  durable.  Some  of  them  have 
neat  variegated  borders,  and  cost  twelve  dollars.  So  also 
out  in  the  wilds  of  Matto-Grosso  there  will  be  seen  large, 
square,  and  home-made  hammocks,  woven  with  diflerent 
colors,  which  are  worth  forty  dollars  each.  People  sleep 
in  the  hammock  at  night  without  undressing.  In  the  day- 
time the  hammock  has  to  serve  for  a  seat,  chairs  being 
very  scarce.  Indeed,  the  long  dry  season  on  the  interior 
table-lands  tends  to  cause  wooden  furniture  to  faU  to 
pieces.     The  same  people  who  eat  with  their  hands,  it 


LIFE  AND  MANNERS.  81 

must  be  said  to  their  credit,  are  clean  in  regard  to  their 
bodies ;  tliey  are  in  the  liabit  of  bathing  frequently.  In 
Matto-Grosso,  women  as  well  as  men  are  addicted  to  smok- 
ing cigarettes.  People  have  coffee  served  to  them  in  a 
small  cup  in  the  morning  before  getting  out  of  the  ham- 
mock. 


CHAPTEE  Y. 

THE   EMPEEOK   OF   BKAZIL. 

"  "What  sort  of  a  man  is  the  Emperor  ? "  This  was 
the  question  most  frequently  asked  me  on  my  return  from 
Brazil  to  the  United  States.  Dom  Pedro  II,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  is  six  feet  tall,  and  weighs  one  hundred  and  eighty 
pounds.  He  has  an  intellectual  head,  eyes  a  grayish  blue 
(his  mother  was  the  Archduchess  Leopoldine  of  Austria), 
beard  full  and  gray,  hair  well  trimmed,  also  gray,  complex- 
ion florid,  and  expression  sober.  He  is  erect,  and  has  a 
manly  bearing.  Being  now  upward  of  sixty  years  of 
age,  he  is  not,  of  course,  so  sentimental  a  man  as  when, 
thirty  years  or  so  ago,  he  used  to  talk  to  American  trav- 
elers about  our  poets.  Descended  from  a  long  line  of 
rulers,  he  came  to  the  throne  in  1840,  at  the  early  age  of 
fourteen  and  a  half  years.  His  reign  began  fifteen  years 
after  Brazilian  independence,  for  his  father,  being  unwill- 
ing to  accept  so  hberal  a  Constitntion,  frankly  expressed 
his  sentiments,  honorably  abdicated,  though  at  great  sacri- 
fice of  his  feelings,  and  retired  to  Portugal.  During  this 
long  period  there  have  been  some  provincial  rebellions 
and  some  local  turmoil,  but  the  Emperor  has  always  shown 
a  tact,  energy,  and  humanity  that  helped  much  to  restore 
order,  quiet,  and  good  feeling.  Thus,  while  he  has  held 
the  scepter  his  country  has  continued  to  prosper.     Its 


THE  EMPEROR  OF  BRAZIL.  83 

vast  area  has  been  held  intact,  and  it  has  become  an 
important  empire.  As  I  have  looked  at  his  gray  head, 
when  he  has  been  driving  in  his  carriage  through  the 
streets  of  Eio,  I  have  said  to  myself,  "  There  certainly 
is  an  august  and  venerable  character." 

The  sixtieth  anniversary  of  his  birthday,  December  2, 
1885,  was  celebrated  by  the  Municipal  Council  of  Eio  by 
the  liberation  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  slaves,  with 
funds  contributed  by  private  parties  for  that  purpose. 
The  whole  amount  thus  contributed  was  34,925  milreis 
($12,256),  of  which  the  sum  of  30,000  milreis  was  from 
some  person  unknown,  but  generally  believed  to  be  the 
Emperor  himself.  During  the  ceremony  of  conferring 
the  letters  of  liberty  upon  the  slaves,  the  Emperor  is  said 
to  have  expressed  the  wish  that  God  would  give  him  life 
to  bestow  liberty  upon  the  last  slave  in  Brazil. 

My  wife  and  I  had  the  honor  of  being  presented  to 
the  Emperor  and  Empress  of  Brazil,  at  the  Palace  of  Sao 
Christovao,  some  little  time  after  our  arrival,  and  were 
graciously  received  by  both.  As  was  natural  on  this  oc- 
casion, reference  was  made  to  the  Emperor's  visit  in  the 
United  States,  and  I  was  glad  to  assure  him  of  his  popu- 
larity there.  I  told  him  he  had  many  friends  in  the 
United  States.  He  replied:  "That  is  a  good  record." 
On  his  learaing  that  the  place  of  my  nativity  was  in  the 
same  region  of  country  as  Boston,  the  Emperor  said  that 
Boston  pleased  him  more  than  any  other  city  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  person  he  visited  when  in  Bos- 
ton was  Mr.  Clark,  of  Cambridge,  the  celebrated  telescope- 
maker.  As  aU  the  world  knows,  the  Emperor  is  not  only 
a  scholar,  but  a  man  of  great  activity.  He  is  unwearied 
in  his  visits  to  observe  and  encourage  industrial  and  edu- 
cational enterprise.    Day  after  day  one  hears  of  his  spend- 


84:       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITIOIf  AND  PROSPECTS. 

ing  two  or  three  hours  at  a  time  at  some  of  the  public  in- 
stitutions or  establishments — it  may  be  a  department  of 
the  Government,  or  the  ]N"ational  Library  or  Museum,  or 
a  pubhc-school  examination,  or  a  hospital,  or  the  Military 
Academy,  or  the  Government  machine-shops,  or  the  Ar- 
senal. 

Daniel  Webster  would  get  up  at  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning  to  study  a  patent  case,  and  has  been  seen  thus 
early  with  his  coat  off,  lying  on  the  floor  on  his  back  under 
a  machine,  studying  the  principle  and  details  of  its  opera- 
tion. The  Emperor  does  almost  as  much,  for  he  has  been 
known,  on  an  American  vessel  at  Rio,  to  descend  on  lad- 
ders through  a  narrow  passage-way  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel  and  minutely  study  its  machinery.  He 
makes  journeys,  lasting  several  days,  into  the  interior  to 
assist  in  the  opening  of  new  railroads,  and  on  these  occa- 
sions he  is  frequently  accompanied  by  the  Empress,  a 
very  popular  lady,  of  fine  manners.  A  recent  instance  of 
his  notice  of  scientific  work,  which  he  seems  always  par- 
ticularly glad  to  honor,  was  his  visit,  October  10, 1884,  on 
board  the  United  States  Coast-Survey  vessel  Charles  S. 
Patterson,  then  lying  at  Rio  on  her  way  to  Alaska  for 
scientific  service.  He  was  welcomed  on  board  by  the 
American  minister,  ex-Governor  Thomas  A.  Osborn,  and 
Lieutenant  Clover,  commanding  the  vessel.  He  went 
through  the  vessel,  examined  carefully  its  library,  scien- 
tific instruments,  charts,  new  apparatus  for  measuring 
depth,  as  well  as  the  newly  invented  steam  launches. 
Later  in  the  day  he  attended  the  opening  of  the  new  in- 
clined-plane Corcovado  Mountain  Railway  to  Paineiras. 
The  following  day,  according  to  the  journals  of  Octo- 
ber 11th,  he  spent  three  hours  at  the  Government  Office 
of  Public  Archives,  where  he  read  several  documents  of 


THE  EMPEROR  OF  BRAZIL.  85 

historic  interest,  among  others  the  original  correspondence 
of  Lord  Cochrane,  the  defense  of  Count  Barca,  a  curious 
manuscript  of  Father  Francisco  Jose  da  Serra  Xavier, 
etc. ;  also  looked  at  some  of  the  work  of  the  office. 

If  Peter  II,  Emperor  of  Brazil,  lacks  some  of  those 
great  qualities  of  statesmanship  which  distinguished  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia,  he  must  be  admitted  anjhow  to  pos- 
sess much  tact  as  a  ruler.  Probably  he  does  not  exercise 
a  hundredth  part  of  the  one-man  power  that  is  used  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  his  death  the  Emperor  would  be  succeeded 
on  the  throne  by  his  daughter  the  Princess  Isabella,  bom 
July  29,  1846,  and  married,  October  15,  1864,  to  Count 
d'Eu  (Louis  Gaston,  Prince  d' Orleans),  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe.  The  princess  bears  a  strong  likeness  to  her 
father,  -and  is  regarded  as  an  earnest  Catholic. 

When  the  Emperor  goes  out  in  the  city  he  always 
rides  in  the  imperial  carriage,  drawn  by  six  mules  or 
horses,  with  a  mounted  escort  of  eight  or  ten  men,  two  of 
which  ride  ahead.  The  carriage  is  always  driven  rapidly, 
and  the  Emperor's  coming  over  the  stone  pavements  can 
be  heard  some  distance  off.  He  generally  sits  bareheaded 
in  the  carriage,  reading,  and  returns  salutations  with  a 
slight  nod.  I  am  told  that  his  library,  into  which  visitors 
are  not  usually  admitted,  is  in  a  state  of  great  disorder — 
books,  pictures,  and  other  objects  being  scattered  over  the 
floor.  He  gives  no  dinners  nor  balls,  but  is  accessible  to 
the  public  generally  every  Saturday  evening.  He  is  very 
benevolent,  and  gives  away  a  good  deal  of  money  to  the 
poor.  Though  a  man  of  liberal  ideas,  he  fulfills  those 
religious  duties  and  ceremonies  required  by  his  office. 
One  of  these  is  to  wash  annually  the  feet  of  a  certain 
number  of  poor  people.     Respectable  persons  are  selected 


86      BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

for  tHs  rite,  who,  after  its  performance,  are  treated  to  a 
good  dinner.  At  Easter  likewise  he  attends  the  long 
service  at  the  Cathedral,  and  publicly  drinks  a  glass  of 
holy  water.  A  beautiful  and  pious  duty,  which  he  never 
neglects,  is  to  visit  his  mother's  tomb  on  every  anniver- 
sary of  her  death. 

The  newspapers  mentioned  that,  during  the  political 
excitement  in  April,  a  young  man  called  at  the  palace  in 
Petropohs,  sent  in  a  card,  and  asked  for  an  interview  with 
his  Majesty  the  Emperor,  which  was  granted.  Upon 
being  introduced,  the  visitor  informed  his  Majesty  that 
he  had  come  from  Sao  Paulo  especially  to  warn  him  that 
the  Conservatives  must  be  called  to  take  the  Government. 
The  Emperor  replied  that  this  required  reflection,  and  in- 
vited the  visitor  to  remain  in  an  antechamber,  from  which 
he  was  expelled  by  the  servants.  Some  of  his  political 
duties  will  be  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Government. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

TIJUCA — PEDEA  BONITA. 

TouEiSTS  arriving  at  Rio  in  the  hot  season,  frequently 
go  up  to  Tijuca  to  spend  the  nights,  or  at  least  to  have  a 
look  at  the  place.  It  is  a  grand  mountain-park  region, 
embracing  many  thousand  acres,  intersected  by  excellent 
carriage-roads,  which  lead  up  to  magnificent  sea  and 
mountain  views,  such  as  the  Chinese  and  the  Admiral's, 
abounding  also  with  ilower-besprinkled  woods,  granite 
cliffs,  crystal  brooks  and  cascades.  Some  of  its  nooks 
seem  enchanted.  There  are  two  villages  on  the  main 
road,  and  scattered  about  on  the  various  eminences  are 
some  pretty  villas  whose  grounds  are  well  stocked  with 
orange-groves,  fig-trees,  vines,  thickets  of  bamboo,  big 
rose-bushes,  some  of  which  are  always  in  bloom,  and 
much  other  vegetation. 

The  place  is  now  rather  quiet.  To  get  there,  you 
take  the  street-car  marked  Tijuca  at  the  Largo  Sao  Fran- 
cisco, being  careful  to  select  a  seat  on  the  shady  side; 
on  the  way  you  pass  through  the  long  street,  Haddock 
Lobo,  in  which  are  the  palaces  of  the  Duke  de  Saxe  and 
Baron  Mesqueta,  and  in  an  hour  reach  the  foot  of  the 
mountain.  There  you  take  the  stage,  or  a  private  con- 
veyance, up  the  fine  mountain-road,  admitting  of  a  trot 
a  good  part  of  the  way,  and  in  half  an  hour  are  at  Boa 


88        BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PEOSPECTS. 

Yista,  the  most  elevated  village  in  Tijuca.  That  is  as 
high  ground  as  the  stage  reaches,  but  the  green-topped 
mountains  on  either  side  are  several  hundred  feet  higher. 
On  the  winding  way  up  there  are  two  places  where  very 
beautiful  views  are  to  be  had  of  the  bay  and  part  of  the 
city.  There  are  a  hotel  and  several  nice  residences  at  Boa 
Yista,  but  from  there  the  stage  soon  begins  to  descend 
the  other  side  to  another  hotel,  reached  in  about  ten 
minutes,  and  which,  though  somewhat  «hut  in,  has  a  pleas- 
ant prospect  from  its  piazza,  and  on  its  grounds  a  clear 
stream  forming  cool  basins  for  bathing,  amid  a  romantic 
labyrinth  of  foliage. 

The  last  six  months'  residence  of  my  family  and  my- 
self in  Brazil  was  at  Sea-Yiew  Cottage,  Tijuca,  a  spot 
whence  there  is  a  view  of  the  sea  in  two  places.  During 
this  time  we  had  many  delightful  horseback-rides  amid 
the  charming  solitudes,  especially  into  the  Floresta  and 
its  pleasant  bridle-paths,  where  often  the  most  brilliant 
butterflies,  gently  winging  their  way  through  the  moist 
tropical  air  of  some  shady  ravine,  would  pass  before  us 
and  disappear  in  the  woods. 

To  illustrate  the  surroundings,  I  shall  venture  to  give 
a  familiar  account  of  a  horseback-ride  which,  accompa- 
nied by  my  wife  and  daughter,  I  took  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain  called  Pedra  Bonita  ("  Beautiful  Rock  ").  We 
had  been  told  by  an  old  resident  of  Tijuca  that  the  road 
was  good  all  the  way  there,  and  that  people  sometimes 
made  the  trip  before  breakfast.  "We  started  at  nine 
o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  May  4,  1885,  and,  after  riding 
something  over  a  mile,  on  the  road  leading  from  Boa 
Yista  to  the  Chinese  Yiew,  we  turned  off  to  the  right  and 
went  down  into  and  across  a  valley  having  fifty  acres  or 
so  of  flat  land  watered  by  a  clear  stream,  traversed  by  roads 


TIJUOA-PEDEA  BONITA.  89 

arched  over  by  bamboos,  and  wMch  was  formerly  tlie 
seat  of  a  coffee-plantation.  Of  the  latter  there  is  no  ves- 
tige except  a  durable-looking  house.  At  this  time  there 
was  a  dairy  with  a  good  modem  barn  for  cows,  some 
patches  of  cultivated  grass  on  surrounding  knolls,  a  few 
scattered  dwellings,  and  on  the  farther  side,  down  stream, 
a  paper-miU.  We  rode  on  as  far  as  the  latter  place, 
and  found  we  were  on  the  wrong  track ;  but  a  Portu- 
guese operative  went  with  us  a  few  hundred  yards  and 
showed  us  where  to  turn.  Soon  we  began  to  ascend  the 
mountain  over  a  narrow  way  or  path  which  had  been 
paved  with  rough  stones  many  years  ago,  and  which  was 
beginning  to  be  obstructed  by  high  bushes  and  branches 
of  trees,  especially  after  we  had  left  the  only  pasture-gate 
on  the  way.  On  we  rode.  "We  were  ascending  the  north 
side  of  the  mountain ;  some  of  the  way  was  quite  steep 
and  difficult,  and,  the  weather  being  warm,  it  was  neces- 
sary occasionally  to  let  the  horses  rest.  We  soon  gained 
a  point  where  we  had  a  full  view  of  the  Peak  of  Tijuca, 
the  Parrot's  Beak,  and  other  mountain  scenery.  In  the 
course  of  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  hour  we  came  to 
an  old  and  abandoned  house,  without  floor  or  windows, 
but  in  the  yard  of  which  was  a  fine  specimen  of  the  fire 
tree  or  plant  in  full  bloom,  with  bright-red,  long-leaved 
flowers.  We  rode  up  into  the  door-yard  to  take  a  look 
at  the  place,  and  to  gain,  if  we  could,  a  good  distant  view. 
There  seemed  to  be  no  very  near  prospect  of  our  getting 
to  the  top  of  the  mountain.  However,  we  kept  on  our  way 
through  high  and  thickly  grown  bushes.  In  the  course 
of  half  an  hour  more  we  came  to  another  deserted,  low- 
roofed,  weather-stained  house,  still  more  dilapidated  than 
the  one  we  had  just  seen.  Around  this  were  a  few  rods 
of  pasture,  though  rather  overgrown  with  bushes.    We 


90        BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

seemed  to  have  come  to  the  end  of  our  path,  for  there 
were  no  signs  of  a  track  beyond,  and  we  were  not  at  the 
summit  of  Pedra  Bonita,  that  was  sure.  Fortunately  for 
us,  however,  we  met  there  a  colored  man,  a  tall,  slender 
old  fellow,  who  was  hunting  his  mule.  He  was  bare- 
footed, wore  a  pair  of  cotton  trousers,  a  thin  undershirt, 
a  low-crowned  felt  hat,  and  had  in  his  hands  a  sharp, 
brass-hilted  artillery  saber  or  broadsword,  which  I  sup- 
posed he  intended  to  use  in  cutting  bushes.  We  learned 
from  him  that  we  were  on  the  right  track,  and  that  we 
could  get  to  the  top  of  Pedra  Bonita  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour.  He  pointed  toward  the  path  we  should  take, 
but  said  it  was  very  bad.  "We  found  it  so  completely 
overgrown  by  ferns  and  bushes  that  we  could  make  no 
progress  at  all.  I  then  proposed  that  he  should  accom- 
pany us,  to  show  the  way,  which  he  did,  going  ahead  and 
cutting  away  the  bushes  so  we  could  get  along.  The  way 
was  difficult  and  seemed  long.  I  thought  no  one  could 
have  passed  that  route  on  horseback  for  some  years. 
At  one  time  I  almost  had  misgivings  lest  we  were  being 
led  into  the  wilderness ;  but  at  length,  in  less  perhaps 
than  half  an  hour,  we  reached  the  top.  While  yet  in  the 
woods,  and  before  we  could  see  anything  but  light 
through  the  branches,  we  could  hear  the  heavy  roar  of  the 
sea.  "We  dismounted  and  tied  our  horses  in  a  clump  of 
heavy  timber,  and  then  walked  a  few  hundred  feet  out 
upon  the  bare,  smooth  summit  of  solid  rock,  where  a  little 
monument  had  been  built.  We  were  on  the  summit  of 
Pedra  Bonita. 

The  view  was  superb.  In  a  moment  we  felt  more 
than  rewarded  for  the  difficult  and  fatiguing  ascent.  On 
our  right,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  was  the  long 
Tijuca  beach,  with  the  white  waves  of  the  ocean,  whose 


TIJUCA— PEDRA  BONITA.  91 

deep  murmur  we  heard,  rolling  upon  it ;  and  back  of  the 
beach  a  flat,  dark  area  of  low  land,  inclosing  a  fresh-water 
lake,  around  which  were  some  fishermen's  cottages.  Op- 
posite us  was  the  castle-topped  Garvea,  with  its  great 
perpendicular  tower  of  solid  rock,  distinctly  and  beauti- 
fully prominent.  To  the  left  of  the  Garvea,  and  partly 
in  front  of  us,  was  an  extensive  view  of  the  ocean  and  an 
island  near  the  shore;  off  to  the  left,  and  apparently 
eight  miles  distant,  was  a  good  view  of  the  Corcovado,  its 
side  toward  the  sea  looking  extremely  precipitous  and  its 
summit  sharp-pointed.  Between  the  mountains  we  could 
see  the  Bay  of  Kio,  and  the  Petropolis  Mountains  be- 
yond; also  a  little  to  their  right  the  pinnacles  of  the 
Organ  Mountains.  The  prospect  was  much  grander  than 
the  "  Chinese  Yiew  " — so  called  because  Chinamen  built 
the  road  leading  to  it.  Between  the  Pedra  Bonita  we 
were  on  and  the  Corcovado,  there  was  a  mass  of  white 
moving  clouds  covering  the  valleys,  which  made  the 
scene  more  picturesque.  What  we  had  formerly  sup- 
posed was  the  Pedra  Bonita  was,  in  fact,  the  slender, 
sharp-pointed,  sugar-loaf  eminence,  a  little  way  distant  on 
our  left,  but  considerably  below  us,  called  the  Pitanga. 
The  highest  summit  of  Pedra  Bonita  has  an  area  only 
about  twenty-five  feet  square,  and  the  sides  are  precipi- 
tous. Toward  the  Garvea  there  is,  after  a  slight  descent, 
a  continuation  of  the  summit  that  is  about  an  acre  broad. 
After  a  stay  of  twenty  minutes  we  started  down, 
bringing  with  us  a  piece  of  the  rock.  Our  guide,  who 
had  stayed  with  us,  led  the  way,  still  cutting  bushes  to 
improve  the  path.  At  one  place  he  made  a  sudden  halt, 
and  seemed,  by  the  motion  of  his  arm  and  knife,  to  be 
trying  to  scare  rather  than  hit  a  snake  which  he  said  was 
in  among  the  branches  of  some  bushes.     ITeither  of  us 


92       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

saw  the  reptile,  which  probably  was  after  birds.  It  was 
suggested  that  it  might  be  an  anaconda.  The  incident 
afforded  a  good  laugh. 

We  left  our  guide  where  we  found  him,  telling  him 
to  come  to  our  house  soon  for  his  pay.  He  gave  me  a 
few  guavas,  which  I  put  in  my  pocket,  and  just  then  I 
spied  a  couple  of  clusters  of  wild  blackberries,  which, 
though  small,  had  the  natural  taste.  They  are  never  seen 
in  Brazil  except  in  some  such  wild  place,  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  fruit  could  not  be  cultivated. 

It  was  half -past  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  when  we 
safely  reached  home.  Where  the  road  was  good  we 
galloped  rapidly.  We  had  occupied  nearly  five  hours  in 
our  excursion,  yet  felt  very  well  satisfied  at  what  we  had 
accomplished. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

BITTJATION,    EESOHRCES,    AND   CLIMATE. 

A  coTJNTKY  as  large  as  Brazil,  having  an  area  equal  to 
tliat  of  tlie  United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska,  must,  of 
course,  have  a  variety  of  surface  and  climate.  First, 
there  are  the  hot  lowlands  bordering  the  ocean ;  secondly, 
the  highlands,  partly  prairie,  and  on  the  average  three 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  a  salubrious 
climate ;  and,  thirdly,  the  great  forest-clad  river-basins. 
Tlie  vast  basin  of  the  Amazon,  which  occupies  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  empire,  and  comprises  a  third  of  its  whole 
area,  is  nearly  level,  although  there  are  occasional  blujffs 
and  not  very  high  mountain-spurs  on  its  shores  as  well  as 
along  the  banks  of  its  tributaries.  This  region  is  mostly 
covered  with  forest.  The  other  two  thirds  of  the  country 
are  to  a  great  extent  mountainous,  or  at  least  much  ele- 
vated and  broken.  Distinct  ranges  of  mountains  extend 
along  nearly  the  whole  of  the  sea-coast,  but  they  gener- 
ally are  only  about  four  thousand  feet  high,  are  covered 
with  a  good  growth  of  hard-wood  trees,  and  always  have 
a  green  appearance.  There  are  only  a  very  few  of  the 
mountains  in  Brazil  which  have  an  elevation  of  six  thou- 
sand to  eight  thousand  feet.  There  are  some  in  the  min- 
ing regions,  three  hundred  miles  west  of  Hio,  which  are 
very  rocky,  and  have  a  naked  and  black  appeai'ance. 


94:       BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND   PROSPECTS. 

Professor  Agassiz  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  soil 
which  covers  Brazil  was  brought  down  from  the  Andes 
by  an  immense  glacier  dming  the  ice  period — the  "  cos- 
mic winter,  which  may  have  lasted  thousands  of  centu- 
ries."    His  conclusions  on  other  matters  have  been  so 
sound  that  I  was  disposed  to  adopt,  without  question,  this 
theory  of  his,  and  was  surprised  to  hear  an  experienced 
geologist,  who  is  acquainted  with  Brazil,  throw  doubt 
upon  it.     His  remark  to  me  was,  "  As  the  students  at 
college  used  to  say,  Agassiz  '  balled  up '  on  this  matter." 
But  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  soil — call 
it  "  drift "  or  "  deposit "  as  we  may — one  thing  is  certain, 
that  nearly  over  all  the  surface  of  Brazil  the  soil  has  a 
red  color ;  and  the  darker  the  shade  of  red  which  it  has, 
and  the  nearer  it  approaches  to  a  purple  color,  the  more 
fertile  it  is  found  to  be.     Such  soil  frequently  occurs  on 
the  more  elevated  situations,  where  it  produces  a  rich 
growth  of  vegetation,  and,  indeed,  is  found  on  mountains 
more  frequently  than  on  low  land.     Mr.  Buckle,  in  his 
well-known  work,  says  :  "  Brazil,  which  is  nearly  as  large 
as  the  whole  of  Europe,  is  covered  with  a  vegetation  of 
incredible  profusion.     Indeed,  so  rank  and  luxuriant  is 
the  growth,  that  ]S"ature  seems  to  riot  in  the  very  wanton- 
ness of  power.  .  .  .  The  progress  of  agriculture  is  stopped 
by  impassable  forests,  and  the  harvests  are  destroyed  by 
innumerable  insects.      The  mountains  are  too  high  to 
scale,  the  rivers  are  too  wide  to  bridge ;    everything  is 
contrived  to  keep  back  the  human  mind,  and  repress  its 
rising  ambition."     This  eloquent  writer  devotes  several 
pages  to  Brazil,  and  much  that  he  says  of  it  is  true ;  but 
he  had  acquired  from  travelers,  who  had  made  but  brief 
visits  to  the  country,  an  erroneous  impression  as  to  the 
density  and  luxuriance  of  its  vegetation.     Many  of  the 


SITUATIOiT,  RESOURCES,  AND  CLIMATE.  95 

best  plantations  in  Brazil  are  on  land  tliat  was  formerly 
covered  with  the  heaviest  kind  of  timber  that  the  soil 
produces,  and  I  am  satisfied  that,  if  we  take  the  most  de- 
sirable agricultural  land  as  a  body,  it  can  be  subdued 
about  as  readily  as  the  forests  of  Kentucky  and  Ohio 
were  subdued  by  the  pioneers  of  those  States.  Some  of 
the  rich  bottom-lands  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi 
bear  as  dense  and  luxuriant  a  forest-growth  as  are  to  be 
found  in  Brazil.  It  is  true,  the  mountains  greatly  ob- 
struct communication ;  but  already  railroads  run  over 
them  in  several  places,  as  well  as  through  them  by  tun- 
nels; and  they  are  no  higher  than  some  of  those  in 
l!^orway,  which  are  crossed  by  excellent  macadamized 
roads.  The  many  navigable  rivers,  instead  of  retarding 
development,  afford  an  extensive  means  of  communica- 
tion, and  much  of  the  civilization  of  the  interior  is  found 
along  their  banks.  In  the  central  and  southern  portions 
of  Brazil  are  extensive  undulating  plains,  mostly  devoid  of 
timber,  covered  with  green  grass  in  summer  but  shriveled 
and  almost  bare  in  winter,  and  which,  though  better  suited 
for  cattle-raising  than  for  field-culture,  occasionally  suffer 
long-continued  and  fatal  droughts.  The  more  fertile 
tracts  of  the  country  are  like  islands  in  a  great  area  of 
thin  soil.  One  may  sometimes  travel  for  days  on  horse- 
back over  poor  and  almost  worthless  land.  A  naturalist, 
who  has  spent  several  years  traveling  in  Brazil,  said  to 
me :  ''  Brazil  is  not  a  fertile  country ;  even  the  rich  vege- 
tation in  the  Amazon  Yalley  is  not  owing  to  fertile  soil 
but  to  the  air  and  rain."  Speaking  of  the  large  province 
of  Matto-Grosso,  comprising  almost  a  fourth  of  the  em- 
pire, he  said,  "  It  is  a  splendid  desert." 

Having  traveled  hundreds  of  miles  in  different  direc- 
tions in  some  of  the  most  fertile  and  productive  parts  of 


96       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tlie  countiy,  I  must  say  that  its  vegetation  is  not  more 
remarkably  luxuriant  than  what  would  be  met  with  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States  or  Europe. 

Mr.  Walter  J.  Hammond,  a  British  subject  and  a  rail- 
way manager  in  Brazil,  seems  to  give  a  fair  summary  of 
the  character  of  the  land  in  a  paper  recently  published. 
"  The  chief  reason,"  he  says,  "  for  the  belief  in  the  sur- 
passing fertility  of  the  land  is  not  based  on  what  it  has 
been  known  to  give  per  acre,  but  rather  it  is  the  result  of 
an  ocular  impression  of  the  glorious  green  mountains  that 
form  the  coast-line  of  the  southern  half  of  Brazil.  In- 
stinctively, all  attribute  fertility  to  forest-lands,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  this  is  right,  owing  to  the  magnificent  allu- 
vial soil  found  in  them,  often  the  accumulation  of  many 
a  century.  But  Brazil  is  not  all  covered  with  dense  for- 
ests, and  even  where  it  is,  and  where  the  soil  is  sufficiently 
moist  and  good,  the  land  is  not  by  any  means  suitable  for 
any  other  than  tropical  agriculture.  There  are  myriads 
of  miles  of  sterile  campo-land,  on  which  only  rank  grass 
grows,  and  there  are  miles  untold  of  sandy  plains,  on 
which  only  scrub  cork-trees  and  other  similar  growth  will 
flourish.  .  .  .  Examining  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  not- 
ably one  of  the  richest  in  Brazil,  a  territory  not  much  in- 
ferior in  size  to  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  combined, 
we  find  that  down  the  coast,  for  a  distance  of  from  fifty 
to  eighty  miles  inland,  the  land  is  comparatively  useless 
from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  Beyond  this  strip  of 
land  the  soil  is  a  little  better,  and  will,  after  the  forest  has 
been  cut  or  burned  down,  produce  one  or  two  crops  of 
Indian  com  or  rice  without  the  need  of  manuring,  after 
which  it  is  used  up.  About  one  hundred  miles  from  the 
sea-coast  commences  the  coffee  district,  which  is  also  vari- 
able in  fertility,  some  parts  being  very  good,  others  use- 


SITUATION,   RESOURCES,   AND  CLIMATE.  97 

less  from  being  too  dry,  and  others  too  sandj.  Two  hun- 
dred miles  inland,  in  the  region  between  the  rivers  Pardo, 
Piracicaba,  and  Tiete,  where  trap  rock  is  chiefly  found,  is 
the  famous  red  land.  Even  here  there  are  stretches  of 
miles  and  miles  of  sandy  campo-land,  useless  for  anything. 
If  the  European  idea  of  good  land — namely,  that  which 
with  careful  tilling  and  manuring  will  give  good  crops — 
be  taken  as  a  standard,  then  can  the  whole  province  of 
Sao  Paulo  be  considered  generally  good,  for  the  climate 
is  good,  the  rainfall  between  forty  and  fifty  inches  on  the 
table-land  from  Sao  Paulo  inland,  and  the  seasons  are  well 
defined.  This,  however,  can  not  be  called  '  surpassing 
fertility.'  On  the  contrary,  it  is  the  usual  hard  work  of 
farming.  "When  speaking  of  '  surpassing  fertility,'  then, 
such  rich  lands  as  will  give  crop  after  crop  (of  which 
there  are  tracts  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo)  with  the 
minimum  of  labor,  and  without  the  necessity  of  a  rotation 
of  crops,  is  understood.  Again,  there  certainly  are  good 
grazing-lands  in  the  west  of  Sao  Paulo  and  in  Minas- 
Geraes,  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  markets,  but  they  can 
not  compare  with  the  prairies  of  Pio  Grande  and  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  hence  can  not  be  counted  on  as  a  source 
of  railway  prosperity  for  many  years  to  come.  Brazil's 
chief  riches  are  her  tropical  products  and  her  unworked 
minerals.  ...  To  sum  up  this  question  of  'surpassing 
fertility,'  Brazil  is  very  like  the  United  States,  in  being 
rich  and  poor  as  far  as  her  soil  goes,  but  she  can  not  com- 
pete with  the  States  in  many  things,  owing  to  her  phys- 
ical configuration,  her  rivers  in  the  southern  half  of  the 
empire  being  of  little  use,  having  only  short  stretches  of 
navigable  water,  and  being  cut  up  by  innumerable  rapids 
and  water-falls;  finally,  they  chiefly  run  toward  Bolivia  and 
her  other  western  frontiers,  instead  of  toward  the  coast." 


98        BEAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Among  the  many  great  river-basins  of  Brazil  the  Sao 
Francisco  claims  attention  next  after  the  Amazon,  for  the 
degree  of  its  development  and  the  extent  and  variety  of 
its  agricultural  resources.  It  occupies  but  little  space  on 
the  ordinary  map,  but  it  is  actually  a  thousand  miles  long 
and  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  wide,  being  inclosed 
on  both  sides  by  ranges  of  not  very  high  mountains, 
whose  spurs  and  foot-hills  occasionally  extend  to  the  river- 
banks.  This  river  takes  its  rise  about  three  hundred  miles 
northwest  of  Kio  de  Janeiro,  and,  flowing  in  a  north  and 
northeasterly  course  through  a  broken  country,  whose 
general  surface  is  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  finally 
reaches  the  ocean  near  the  tenth  degree  of  south  latitude, 
and  midway  between  the  two  important  coast  cities,  Per- 
nambuco  and  Bahia.  Unfortunately,  the  greatest  extent 
of  its  navigation  is  shut  out  from  the  ocean  by  tremendous 
falls. 

Its  scenery  is  more  picturesque  than  that  of  the  upper 
Mississippi,  as  it  includes  not  only  bold  bluffs  and  knobs 
single  and  in  groups,  but  vast  plains,  sweeping  undula- 
tions, and  grand  mountain-views.  Fine  stretches  of  lime- 
stone country,  richly  clothed  with  forest,  are  here  and 
there  succeeded  by  sandstone  with  meager  soil  and  scanty 
vegetation.  There  are  also  marks  which  have  been  left 
by  mighty  inundations.  It  is  not  remarkable,  perhaps,  for 
its  natural  history.  Small  alligators  are  frequently  seen 
protruding  their  snouts  out  of  the  water.  Here  and  there 
on  a  white  sand-bank  are  flocks  of  gulls  and  snowy  herons, 
while  high  in  the  air  wheels  the  hunting  vulture  "svith 
crimson  head  and  silver-lined  wings.  At  night,  in  the 
soHtudcs,  the  traveler  wiU  often  hear  the  plaintive  notes 
of  the  whip-poor-will.  There  is  much  local  trafiic  on  this 
great  river  in  spoon-shaped  yawls  and  on  rafts  guided  by 


SITUATION,  RESOURCES,  AND  CLIMATE.  99 

singing  and  superstitious  boatmen.  The  people  living 
along  the  banks  call  the  canoe  their  horse. 

Scattered  along  the  valley  are  many  plantations  and 
farms  under  cultivation.  Delicious  water-melons,  or- 
anges, bananas,  and  figs  are  among  the  common  fruits. 
Cotton  is  grown  considerably,  especially  in  the  lower  val- 
ley, yielding  five  hundred  pounds  of  clean  cotton  to  the 
acre.  Indian  com  and  sugar-cane  are  likewise  important 
crops.  The  principal  agricultural  pursuit,  however,  is 
stock-raising,  and  that  is  the  industry  for  which  most  of 
the  land  is  best  adapted.  About  all  the  land  in  this  great 
valley  is  held  by  private  individuals,  some  owning  one 
hundred  and  sixty  square  miles  each.  They  have  no 
taxes  to  pay  on  it ;  otherwise  they  would  be,  as  we  say  in 
the  United  States,  "  land-poor."  Among  the  towns  there 
are  two  or  three  with  a  population  of  four  thousand. 
Captain  Burton,  who  went  down  the  entire  valley,  esti- 
mates that  it  will  sustain  a  population  of  twenty  millions. 
He  shows,  however,  that  there  are  places,  now  in  ruins, 
on  its  banks,  which  were  under  successful  cultivation  a 
century  ago  by  the  Jesuit  missions.  The  Paulo  Affonso 
falls  of  this  river,  two  hundred  and  seventy-three  feet 
high,  and  probably  the  grandest  in  Brazil,  occur  about  one 
hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  Around  these  falls  a  rail- 
road (Paulo  Affonso),  eighty-one  miles  in  length,  has  been 
built  by  Government  aid,  which,  starting  at  Piranhas,  on 
the  lower  navigable  part  of  the  river,  in  the  province  of 
Alagoas,  terminates  on  its  upper  navigable  waters  at  Jato- 
ba,  in  the  province  of  Pemambuco. 

Railroads  to  tap  this  productive  but  now  secluded  val- 
ley are  pushing  on  from  three  important  seaports.  One 
from  Pemambuco,  the  first  section  of  which  was  opened 
in  1858,  running  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  through  a 


100     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

sugar  country,  has  been  in  operation  seventy-seven  miles, 
to  Palmares,  a  couple  of  years,  and  is  now  completed  to 
Marayal,  another  station  beyond,  but  is  only  about  a  third 
part  of  the  way  to  its  destination.  Another,  from  Bahia, 
running  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  is  in  operation,  one 
hundred  and  sixty-six  miles,  to  Salgada,  being  over  a  third 
part  of  the  way  to  Joazeiro,  its  destination,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Sao  Francisco.  The  other  is  the  Dom  Pedro 
II  Pail  way,  running  from  Brazil's  great  commercial  cen- 
ter, Kio  de  Janeiro,  also  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  and 
finished  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles,  to  Itabira, 
on  the  head-waters  of  the  Sao  Francisco,  from  which  point 
it  will  descend  the  valley.  These  three  railroads  will  in 
a  few  years  aid  much  in  the  development  of  that  impor- 
tant region. 

The  mbber  industry  is  the  principal  resource  of  the 
two  great  jDrovinces  of  the  Amazon  Valley,  Para  and 
Amazon,  and  its  product  occupies  the  third  place  in  the 
national  exports.  The  rubber-tree  requires  a  growth  of 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years  before  it  begins  to  produce, 
hence  little  or  nothing  has  been  done  for  its  propagation. 
The  milky  sap  which  forms  crude  rubber  is  taken  from 
the  wild  trees,  which  grow  scattered  through  the  forests 
of  the  Amazon  and  many  of  its  affluents.  The  industry, 
being  principally  in  the  hands  of  an  uneducated  and  half- 
civilized  nomad  population  of  Indian  mixture,  is  of  a 
crude  character,  and  is  pursued  mostly  on  the  national 
domain,  which  is  freely  open  to  everybody  for  this  j^ur- 
pose.  Il^othing  has  been  done  to  improve  the  system  of 
labor.  A  wasteful  and  exhaustive  system  has  been  fol- 
lowed for  half  a  century,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
millions  of  rubber-trees  have  been  destroyed  and  many 
others  abandoned  from    premature    and  excessive  use. 


SITUATION,  RESOURCES,  A]<ID   OLIMA'ra:.        101 

There  are  instances  of  groves  of  trees  wliicli,  by  careful 
use  and  by  not  permitting  them  to  be  tapped  in  the 
months  of  August  and  September,  in  which  they  change 
their  leaves,  have  been  yielding  for  thii-ty  years,  and  still 
are  in  good  producing  condition ;  but  the  common  prac- 
tice is  so  wasteful  that  many  well-informed  people  appre- 
hend that,  unless  some  remedy  is  applied,  this  rich  re- 
source will,  before  long,  suffer  a  serious  and  perhaps  fatal 
decline. 

The  rubber-tree  thrives  only  on  soil  which  is  annually 
overflowed  to  a  depth  of  three  or  more  feet,  and  prefers 
the  lowest  and  most  recent  river  deposit.  The  rubber- 
gatherers  are  temporary  squatters,  and  their  usual  dwell- 
ing is  a  hut  with  low  roof  of  palm-thatch,  beneath  one 
end  of  which  there  is  a  raised  floor  or  framework  of  lath, 
one  or  two  yards  from  the  ground,  to  which  the  occupants 
retreat  at  high  water.  Karrow  paths  lead  from  the  gath- 
erer's hut,  through  dense  nnderwood,  to  each  separate 
tree. 

As  showing  how  unprepared  genteel  people  may  some- 
times be  for  "  roughing  it "  in  the  rubber-growing  wilder- 
ness, or  how  ignorant  they  are  of  the  life  before  them, 
an  American  who  recently  journeyed  on  the  upper 
Amazon  told  me  that  on  the  steamboat  with  him  was  a 
Brazilian  family,  the  head  of  which  was  going  up  to  en- 
gage largely  in  the  rubber  business,  and,  although  he  and 
his  family  would  have  to  live  in  a  shanty  of  one  or  two 
rooms  on  the  river-bank,  his  wife  had  brought  along  in 
her  trunks  several  fashionable  silk  dresses. 

The  chief  products  of  Brazil  for  export  are  coffee, 
sugar,  rubber,  cotton,  hides,  tobacco,  and  mate-tea,  rank- 
ing in  the  order  in  which  they  are  named;  but  maize, 
mandioca  (from  which  tapioca  is  made),  beans,  and  rice 


10,%  <  .aM'ZlX;  ITS  COroil'IOIf  AND  PROSPECTS. 

are  grown  extensively  for  home  consumption,  the  latter 
being  much  used  in  place  of  potatoes.  Oranges,  bananas, 
and  pineapples  are  the  best  and  principal  fruits.  With 
the  exception  of  gold  and  diamonds,  the  mines  as  yet  oc- 
cupy an  insignificant  place.  There  is  good  iron-ore,  which 
is  got  out  and  worked  by  the  Government,  but  not  in  a 
profitable  manner.  Amid  the  black  and  rocky  moimtains 
of  the  province  of  Minas-Geraes  gold-mines  have  been 
successfully  worked  for  two  or  three  centuries,  and  with 
increased  means  of  communication  both  gold  and  diamond 
mining  will  have  an  important  development.  Brazil's  for- 
eign commerce  amounts  to  $176,000,000  a  year,  of  which 
her  exports  average  $96,000,000  and  her  imports  $80,- 
000,000  a  year.  The  aggregate  foreign  commerce  of  all 
the  other  South  American  countries  per  year  is  $275,- 
000,000,  being  only  a  hundred  million  dollars  more  than 
that  of  Brazil  alone.  That  there  is  nothing  marvelous  in 
Brazil's  riches  may  be  seen  by  compai-ing  her  foreign 
commerce  with  that  of  some  other  countries.  Take  Swe- 
den, for  example,  which  lies  at  another  part  of  the  globe 
and  is  covered  with  snow  nearly  half  the  year.  Her 
population  is  four  and  a  haK  millions — ^less  than  half  that 
of  Brazil — and  yet  her  foreign  commerce  amounts  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  million  dollars  a  year,  or  three 
fourths  that  of  Brazil — the  latter  country  meantime  hav- 
ing the  labor  of  a  million  African  slaves.  Of  Brazil's 
total  foreign  commerce  fifty-six  million  dollars,  or  about 
one  third,  is  with  the  United  States ;  of  which  amount 
forty-seven  million  dollars  are  exports,  principally  coffee 
and  rubber,  to  the  United  States,  while  nine  million  dol- 
lars represent  American  imports  into  Brazil,  consisting 
principally  of  flour,  kerosene,  machinery,  lard,  and  lum- 
ber.    This  American  trade  is  distributed  among  the  lead- 


SITUATION,   RESOURCES,  AND   CLIMATE.        103 

ing  ports  of  Brazil  as  follows :  Pard,  $10,000,000 ;  Per- 
nambuco,  $6,000,000 ;  Bahia,  $3,000,000 ;  Kio,  $30,000,- 
000 ;  Santos,  $5,000,000 ;  Kio  Grande  do  Sul,  $1,000,000 ; 
and  other  ports,  $1,000,000. 

Though  a  field  worthy  of  much  attention  and  enter- 
prise, she  has  not  the  capacity  for  that  rapid  commercial 
development  which  her  resources  would  at  first  seem  to 
indicate.  'Her  situation  is  not  favorable  for  the  rapid  ac- 
cumulation of  wealth.  "With  a  population  of  some  thir- 
teen millions  scattered  over  a  region  nearly  as  large  as  the 
United  States,  her  territorial  extent  is  a  source  of  weak- 
ness. Her  resources,  though  undoubtedly  imposing  and 
calculated  to  insure  for  her  an  important  future,  are  yet 
inferior  to  what  is  commonly  supposed.  Her  coal,  iron, 
and  much  of  her  lumber  have  to  be  imported.  The  small 
grains,  such  as  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  do  not  flourish  on 
her  soil,  j  At  present  she  is  laboring  under  some  financial 
embarrassment,  partly  originating,  it  is  but  just  to  say,  in 
a  long  foreign  war  that  was  forced  upon  her,  and  in  which 
her  course  was  disinterested.  Her  revenue  amounts  to 
about  fifty-five  million  dollars  a  year,  but  the  expenditures, 
of  which  only  a  comparatively  small  part  is  for  produc- 
tive purposes,  annually  exceed  that  amount  by  several 
million  dollars.  The  public  debt  of  Brazil  in  1885,  ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  Minister  of  Finance,  was 
868,729,487  milreis;  which  reduced  to  money  of  the 
United  States,  at  the  rate  of  forty  cents  to  the  milreis, 
would  amount  to  three  hundred  and  forty-eight  million  dol- 
lars. Her  annual  interest  charge  is  now  upward  of  twenty 
million  dollars.  Her  currency  consists  of  irredeemable 
legal-tender  Government  notes,  the  value  of  which — daily 
fluctuating — is  about  twelve  cents  below  par,  although  it 
is  seventeen  years  since  her  foreign  war  closed.     In  the 


104:     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

laudable  purpose  of  development,  the  Government  has 
incurred  heavy  liabiHties.  It  has  guaranteed,  and  for  a 
long  term  of  years  will  need  to  pay  the  interest  on,  the 
bonds  of  several  railway  and  other  companies  whose  ex- 
penses exceed  their  income.  And,  although  Brazil  has 
always  maintained  a  dignilied  and  conservative  course, 
and  never  repudiated  any  of  her  debts,  still  there  is  quite 
a  general  feeling  that,  unless  a  change  be  made  in  the  di- 
rection of  retrenchment,  grave  financial  difficulties  may 
be  experienced.  The  situation  is  not  favorable,  therefore, 
for  much  material  progress.  Indeed,  the  gradual  extinc- 
tion of  slave-labor  will,  for  a  while  at  least,  tend  to  reduce 
the  volume  of  national  products.  Steady  increase  has 
been  made  in  extending  several  lines  of  railroads.  Some 
hundreds  of  miles  of  new  road  have  been  opened  for 
traffic  during  the  present  year.  J^ew  lines  have  also  been 
commenced,  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  de- 
velopment will  annually  increase,  though  the  broken  sur- 
face of  Brazil  generally,  and  esj)ecially  the  mountains 
near  the  sea-coast,  are  great  obstacles  to  rapid  railroad  de- 
velopment. The  principal  railroad,  being  the  one  which 
runs  west  from  Hio  de  Janeiro,  crosses  two  ranges  of 
mountains.  The  railroad  running  from  Santos  into  the 
interior  of  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo  has  first  to  climb  a 
mountain  two  thousand  feet  high.  None  of  the  railroads 
have  yet  penetrated  to  the  vicinity  of  wild  or  public 
lands.  Some  of  them  traverse  extensive  areas  of  unculti- 
vated land,  but  as  yet  no  grants  of  land  have  been  made 
in  aid  of  railroads.  The  capital  for  their  construction  has 
mostly  come  from  England.  The  state,  however,  as  well 
as  the  separate  provinces,  has  extensively  guaranteed  the 
payment  of  interest,  usually  at  seven  per  cent,  on  railroad 
capital.     Its  annual  burden  for  the  payment  of  such  in- 


AND  CLIMATE.        105 

terest  amounts  now  to  upward  of  three  million  dollars. 
Tlie  rails  for  all  the  roads  have  to  be  imported,  and  the 
greater  part  are  purchased  in  England.  The  most  of  the 
locomotives,  however,  are  imported  from  the  United 
States.  The  coal  consumed  by  the  locomotives  is  also 
imported.  At  the  close  of  1886  it  may  be  said  there  are 
four  thousand  miles  of  railway  in  operation  in  Brazil. 
There  is  scarcely  a  province  bordering  on  the  ocean  but 
has  one  or  more  railways,  and  every  one  leads  to  the  west 
or  toward  the  interior.  Several  of  the  railroads  that  are 
in  course  of  construction  and  that  have  received  Govern- 
ment guarantee  do  not  pay  and  are  not  likely  to  pay  ex- 
penses for  a  long  time.  The  "  Jornal  do  Commercio,"  in 
an  article  of  August  26,  1883,  specified  nine  separate  rail- 
ways with  a  total  paid-up  capital  of  forty  million  dollars, 
on  which  the  Government  had  guaranteed  the  annual 
payment  of  interest  at  seven  per  cent,  and  which,  with 
cost  of  inspection,  made  an  annual  charge  of  three  million 
dollars,  but  which,  however,  were  only  a  part  of  the 
state's  liabilities. 

"If  we  are  going,"  said  the  "Jornal,"  "to  increase 
this  already  enormous  liability  without  the  greatest  cir- 
cumspection, then  bankruptcy,  that  word  which  has 
sported  on  the  lips  of  so  many  of  our  politicians  as  the 
refrain  of  every  opposition,  may  one  day  become  a  tre- 
mendous reality,  sweeping  away  the  credit  which  we  have 
so  scrupulously,  but  at  the  cost  of  such  heavy  sacrifices, 
succeeded  in  founding  and  keeping  uninjured  as  the  most 
precious  treasure  which  the  nation  may  one  day  be  able 
to  fall  back  upon  should  it  ever  find  it  necessary  to  do  so." 
It  is  amazing  how  few  carriage-roads  have  been  built.  A 
few  good  macadamized  wagon-roads  through  the  fertile 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  extending  across  the  whole  of  it, 


106     BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

would  form  the  nucleus  of  settlements.  If  I  were  the 
Emperor  of  Brazil,  I  would  not  wish  to  be  known  by 
any  better  title  after  my  death  than  that  of  "  The  Road- 
builder." 

The  usual  rates  of  railway  transportation  are  exceed- 
ingly high,  namely :  Textile  and  general  goods,  twenty- 
two  cents  per  ton  per  mile ;  railway-iron,  iron-work  for 
construction,  agricultural  implements,  iron  tubes,  etc., 
eleven  cents  per  ton  per  mile ;  coffee,  cotton,  sugar,  seven- 
teen cents  per  ton  per  mile.  I  have  heard  people  say: 
"  It  is  true  there  are  splendid  tracts  of  fertile  land  suitable 
for  coifee  or  other  plantations  situated  off  a  hundred  miles 
or  more  from  where  railroads  now  end ;  but  it  would  not 
pay  to  cultivate  them,  because  it  would  cost  too  much  to 
bring  the  products  to  market."  I  am  informed,  however, 
that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  railway  charges  will  prob- 
ably be  considerably  reduced.  Several  of  the  railroads, 
which  were  at  first  imperfectly  built,  now  clear  twenty  per 
cent  on  their  capital ;  they  pay  a  dividend  of  ten  per  cent, 
and  use  the  other  ten  per  cent  for  permanent  improve- 
ments. The  time  will  come,  therefore,  when  they  can 
well  afford  to  reduce  their  rates,  and  when  competing 
lines  will  compel  them  to  do  so. 

•  Two  of  the  railways  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo 
which  pay  good  dividends — the  Paulista  and  the  Mogyana 
— appear  to  owe  much  of  their  financial  success  to  the 
economy  of  their  construction:  the  first,  a  broad-gauge 
line,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long,  cost  fifty  thousand 
dollars  per  mile ;  and  the  other,  a  metre-gauge  line,  one 
hundred  and  ninety  miles  long,  cost  twenty  thousand 
dollars  per  mile.  Their  cost  of  construction  appears  to 
have  been  economical,  compared  with  most  other  railways 
in  Brazil. 


SITUATION,   RESOURCES,   AND   CLIMATE.        107 

There  are  no  roads  having  double  tracks,  and  no  roads 
running  night  passenger-trains.  About  one  fourth  of  the 
roads  are  live  feet  three  inches  wide,  and  the  remaining 
three  fourths  are  of  the  metre  gauge.  The  sleepers  are 
filled  in  with  earth,  more  or  less  sandy,  taken  from  adja- 
cent cuttings,  none  of  the  roads  being  ballasted  with  stone. 
Only  a  few  are  fenced  in.  The  speed  of  the  so-called 
passenger-trains  is,  on  the  broad  gauge,  from  twenty-eight 
to  thirty  miles  an  hour,  and  on  the  narrow  gauge  about 
twenty  to  twenty-two  miles  an  hour. 

Several  American  as  well  as  English  civil  engineers 
have  gained  well-merited  distinction  by  their  services  in 
Brazil,  but  the  field  now  appears  to  be  almost  wholly 
occupied  by  native  talent.  However,  as  is  natural,  sev- 
eral English  railway  companies  employ  English  engineers. 
In  subordinate  positions  in  the  Brazilian  railway  service 
the  pay  is  poor,  and  no  inducements  exist  for  Americans. 

Brazil  is  not  only  on  the  east  side  of  South  America, 
but  it  stretches  so  far  eastward  that  a  line  drawn  due  south 
from  Kew  York  through  South  America  would  touch  her 
most  westerly  limits.  The  sun  rises  much  sooner  on  Brazil 
than  it  does  on  the  New  England  States. 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  have  clearly  fixed  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  Eiver  Plate  is  not  a  Brazilian  river. 
It  empties  into  the  Atlantic  south  of  Brazil,  at  about  the 
thirty-fifth  degree  of  south  latitude,  and  is  the  great  water- 
way of  three  rising  republics,  which  are  Brazil's  near  and 
jealous  neighbors  on  the  south.  The  upper  part  of  the 
river,  fonning  the  western  boundary  of  the  republic  of 
Paraguay,  is  called  the  Paraguay,  and  its  middle  part  is 
called  the  Parana.  On  the  other  hand,  Brazil's  great 
river  Amazon  empties  into  the  Atlantic  close  to  the  equa- 
tor.   It  is  a  ten-days'  voyage  for  a  steamer  from  the  mouth 


108      BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

of  one  river  to  the  other.  What  are  known  as  the  River 
Plate  countries  are  the  Argentine  Eepublic  and  the  two 
other  repubHcs  of  Uruguay  and  Paraguay.  The  last  is 
an  interior  state,  of  good  natural  resources,  lying  west  of 
southern  Brazil,  and  has  its  outlet  through  the  River 
Plate.  Its  area  is  equal  to  that  of  the  two  States  of  Illi- 
nois and  Indiana  together.  It  was  greatly  reduced  by  its 
long  war  under  Lopez,  and  now  has  a  population  of  less 
than  half  a  million.  Its  products  are  mate-tea  (its  chief 
export),  horned  cattle,  tobacco,  maize,  rice,  cotton,  and 
sugar ;  and  its  total  foreign  commerce  amounts  to  about 
four  million  dollars  a  year.  The  Republic  of  Uruguay, 
with  a  territorial  extent  about  like  Paraguay,  fronts  on 
the  Atlantic  and  the  north  shore  of  the  River  Plate.  Its 
capital,  Montevideo,  is  an  enterprising  and  pretty  city, 
situated  on  elevated  land,  and  has  about  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  there  that  the  South  Atlantic 
naval  squadron  of  the  United  States  anchors  during  the 
hot  season,  November  to  June,  returning  to  Rio  in  the 
latter  month.  The  population  of  Uruguay  is  a  little  over 
half  a  million,  and  for  such  a  population  its  foreign  com- 
merce is  remarkably  large,  being  about  forty  million  dol- 
lars a  year.  The  principal  industry  is  cattle-  and  sheep- 
raising,  and  the  chief  export  is  hides.  But  much  the 
more  important  of  the  River  Plate  countries  is  the  Argen- 
tine RepubHe,  which  has  an  area,  including  Patagonia, 
one  third  as  great  as  that  of  Brazil.  Its  population,  which 
is  receiving  important  accessions  annually  from  the  south 
of  Europe,  amounts  to  about  four  millions.  Its  exports 
are  principally  wool,  hides,  cattle,  and  dry,  salted  meat ; 
and  its  total  foreign  commerce  amounts  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  million  dollars,  the  exports  and  imports  being 
about  equal.     It  has  two  thousand  miles  of  railway  in 


SITUATION,   RESOURCES,   AND  CLIMATE.        109 

operation.  Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital,  has  three  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants,  is  situated  on  level  ground,  is  built 
in  a  very  regular  manner,  though  many  of  its  buildings 
are  low,  and  is  regarded  as  an  enterprising  and  attractive 
city.  A  bright  American  business  man,  who  has  made 
several  visits  there,  as  well  as  to  Rio,  and  of  whom  I  in- 
quired how  the  cities  compared  with  each  other,  declared, 
"  Eio  is  a  dog-hole  compared  with  Buenos  Ayres."  Others 
with  whom  I  have  conversed,  while  admitting  the  latter 
to  be  the  more  regularly  built  city,  have  said  that  it  had 
not  as  line  private  residences  as  some  that  are  to  be  seen 
at  Rio.  The  climate  of  the  Argentine  Republic  is  such 
that  wheat  is  becoming  one  of  its  successful  and  important 
crops ;  and,  as  very  much  of  its  surface  is  level  or  moder- 
ately undulating,  and  devoid  of  timber,  it  is  susceptible 
of  a  more  rapid  development  than  Brazil.  Indeed,  all 
three  of  these  River  Plate  republics  have  good  natural  re- 
sources, and,  if  they  are  permitted  to  enjoy  the  blessings 
of  peace  and  economical  and  impartial  government,  they 
are  destined  to  make  great  progress.  Being  of  Spanish 
origin,  their  language  is  the  Spanish.  These  are  the 
neighbors  which  Brazil  has  on  her  south  and  southwestern 
borders. 

With  reference  to  climate,  I  must  say  that  I  have 
found  more  inconvenience  from  cold  weather  than  from 
hot  weather  in  Brazil.  The  trouble  is,  that  there  are  about 
sixty  mornings  and  evenings  in  the  course  of  a  year  at  Rio 
when  a  little  fire  in  a  dwelling  is  necessary  for  comfort, 
but  none  of  the  houses  have  any  stoves,  fireplaces,  or 
even  chimneys,  except  what  are  connected  with  the  kitch- 
en. In  the  most  southerly  province,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
snow  frequently  falls.  On  the  undulating  plains  of  Pa- 
rand,  three  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  the  average  daily 

10 


110     BRAZIL:  ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

range  of  temperature  in  August  is  from  44°  to  T2°  Fahr., 
and  snow  occasionally  falls  there  in  July,  cnougli  to  en- 
tirely cover  tlie  ground.  Even  in  the  province  of  Per- 
nambuco,  eight  degrees  south  from  the  equator,  country- 
men may  be  seen  descending  from  the  highlands,  with 
their  produce,  dressed  in  fur-covered  skins.  The  Ameri- 
can minister,  Mr.  Blow,  writing  from  Petropolis,  near 
Eio,  July,  1870,  mentions  a  frost  that  had  occurred  on  the 
22d  of  June  preceding,  and  which  it  was  feared  had 
greatly  damaged  the  crops  in  that  region.  Ice  formed 
that  was  nearly  an  inch  thick ;  but  nothing  similar  had 
occurred  since  1842.  On  the  interior  farming-lands, 
which  are  about  two  thousand  feet  above  ihe  sea,  white 
frosts  occur  repeatedly,  almost  every  year,  say  in  the 
winter  months  of  June  and  July,  and  kill  any  bean-crops 
which,  from  having  been  planted  late,  are  then  growing. 
Mr.  Lidgerwood,  who  is  so  well  and  favorably  known  in 
Brazil,  through  his  machines  for  cleaning  coffee,  told  me 
that  one  night  in  June,  1868,  he  rode  muleback  from 
Campinas  to  Jundiahy,  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  where  he 
found  the  ground  white  with  frost,  and  that  he  never  felt 
the  cold  so  much  as  then,  being  so  chilled  and  numb  he 
could  hardly  step.  As  for  the  negro  who  was  with  him, 
he  thought  he  was  about  frozen  to  death;  he  seemed 
hardly  able  to  speak.  All  he  could  get  out  of  him  was  a 
groan ! 

We  must  remember  that  when  we  get  south  of  the 
equator  the  seasons  come  to  a  right-about-face.  While  it 
is  winter  north  of  the  equator,  it  is  summer  south  of  the 
equator.  When  it  is  summer  in  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States,  and  everything  is  green  and  tropical,  then  it  is  that 
people  in  Brazil  are  putting  on  their  overcoats,  and  the 
leaves  have  totally  fallen  from  many  of  the  trees.     In 


SITUATION,   RESOURCES,   AND  CLIMATE.        m 

Brazil,  summer  is  in  its  full  tropical  glory  in  December 
and  January.  Hot  weather  prevails  at  Rio  de  Janeii^o 
from  October  to  Mav,  say  a  period  of  seven  months,  dur- 
ing wbich  there  will  be  frequent  spells,  of  a  few  days  in 
succession,  w^hen,  from  ten  o'clock  in  the  forenoon  tiU 
fonr  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  temperature  will  be  up 
to  about  85°  Fahr.  in  the  shade.  A  few  nights  now  and 
then  will  be  uncomfortably  warm.  But,  commonly,  such 
hot  speUs,  after  continuing  two  or  three  days,  are  followed 
by  heavy  rains,  lasting  through  a  night  or  day,  and  which 
leave  the  atmosphere  fresh  and  pleasant  for  several  days. 
The  heat  never  appears  to  be  as  excessive  as  it  is  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States.  Work  goes  on  briskly  all 
through  the  day.  Deaths  from  sunstroke  are  exceedingly 
rare.  The  thunder  and  lightning  are  not  terrific,  and 
cyclones  and  hurricanes  scarcely  ever  occur.  The  winter 
months  of  Bio  are  in  the  main  what,  in  the  United  States, 
we  would  regard  as  pleasant  summer  weather.  In  that 
season  a  gentleman,  starting  out  in  the  morning  and  going 
in  an  open  street-car,  would  be  likely  every  day  to  take  a 
light  overcoat  with  him,  and  generally  to  wear  it.  At 
that  season,  although  many  of  the  trees  have  a  naked  ap- 
pearance, and  show  that  IS'ature  is  taking  a  rest,  still  there 
are  always  enough  that  are  covered  with  green  foliage, 
together  with  the  flowers  and  shrubbery  that  are  culti- 
vated in  thousands  of  pretty  gardens,  to  give  one,  and 
especially  a  stranger,  the  impression  that  it  is  still  summer. 
On  the  whole,  I  regard  the  climate  of  Bio  as  charming, 
and,  remembering  the  severity  of  our  North  American 
winters,  I  am  perhaps  more  inclined  to  value  a  chmate  in 
which  people  can  be  out  in  the  open  air  every  day  in  the 
year  without  danger.  From  all  that  I  can  learn,  the  cli- 
mate of  the  city  of  Bernambuco  is  the  most  delightful  of 


112     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

any  in  Brazil.  Thougli  a  little  more  damp,  it  has  not  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  All  the 
year  round  it  is  favored  with  the  fresh  sea-breeze. 

Take  the  whole  country  of  Brazil,  and  the  climate  is 
salubrious.  It  is  true  that  many  people  living  in  the  wild 
valleys  of  great  rivers  that  annually  overflow  suffer  much 
from  intermittent  fever,  but  they  are  poorly  housed  and 
fed.  The  yellow  fever  could  be  entirely  exterminated,  as 
it  ought  to  be,  from  sUch  places  as  Kio,  by  the  adoption 
of  rigorous  sanitary  measures.  The  improvement  already 
made  in  this  regard  has  proved  an  important  barrier 
against  its  ravages.  I  do  not  wish,  however,  to  give  a 
too  rose-colored  view  of  the  salubrity  of  the  climate.  Un- 
acclimated  strangers  coming  to  Brazil  are  exposed  to  some 
dangers.  European  governments,  which  give  pensions  to 
their  civil  officers  after  about  thirty  years'  service,  allow 
one  year's  service  in  Brazil  to  count  as  two  years,  on  ac- 
count of  the  supposed  perils  of  the  climate.  Facts  are 
cited  by  Brazilian  writers  to  show  that  intermittent  fever 
is  sometimes  more  prevalent  on  high  than  on  low  land. 
Thus,  a  violent  epidemic  of  this  fever  prevailed  among 
the  workmen  building  the  railroad  over  the  mountain- 
range  of  Maromby,  in  the  province  of  Parana,  while  there 
was  very  little  of  it  among  the  workmen  on  that  part  of 
the  line  through  the  swampy  lowlands  between  Eoga-JSTova 
and  Curitiba.  Also,  in  constructing  the  water-reservoir 
in  the  Tijuca  Mountains,  this  fever  was  prevalent.  This 
confirms  experience  in  Italy,  where  it  has  been  found  that 
two  thirds  of  the  places  where  fever  prevailed  were  among 
hills  and  mountains. 

Mrs.  Agassiz,  writing  at  Pard,  August  14,  1865,  says : 
"  We  are  very  agreeably  surprised  in  the  climate  here.  I 
had  expected,  from  the  moment  of  our  arrival  in  the 


SITUATION,   RESOURCES,  AND  CLIMATE.        113 

region  of  the  Amazons,  to  be  gasping  in  a  fierce,  uninter- 
mitting,  intolerable  heat.  On  the  contrary,  the  mornings 
are  fresh ;  a  walk  or  ride  between  six  and  eight  o'clock  is 
always  delightful,  and  though,  during  the  middle  of  the 
day,  the  heat  is  certainly  very  great,  it  cools  oS.  again 
toward  four  o'clock.  The  evenings  are  delightful,  and 
the  nights  always  comfortable.  Even  in  the  hottest  part 
of  the  day  the  heat  is  not  dead  ;  there  is  always  a  breeze 
stirring." 

Senator  Henrique  d'Avila,  a  rich  stock-raiser  in  the 
province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (the  most  southerly  part 
of  Brazil),  also  ex-Minister  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  Public  Works,  imparted  some  valuable  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  recent  changes  of  climate  and  droughts 
in  that  province,  in  a  speech  which  he  made  in  the  Senate 
on  the  13th  of  July,  1884.  Senator  Martins  had  stated 
that  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  had  not  been  scourged  by  droughts 
like  the  province  of  Ceara,  and,  in  reply  to  this,  M.  d'Avila 
affirmed  that  his  province  had  suffered  such  formidable 
droughts  as  to  cause  poverty  and  ruin  to  many  of  the  in- 
habitants. They  had  had,  he  said,  a  drought  lasting  two 
or  three  years,  by  which  many  stock-raisers  lost  almost  all 
their  cattle,  and,  both  in  Rio  Grande  and  the  adjoining 
state  of  Uruguay,  there  had  been  farms  in  the  interior 
districts  without  one  single  head  of  cattle.  The  cattle 
had  died,  or  fled  for  water,  so  that  nearly  all  were  lost. 
In  regard  to  wheat-culture,  it  was  not  abandoned,  as  had 
been  alleged,  because  cattle-raising  was  more  lucrative, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  irregularity  of  the  climate  and 
damage  by  rust.  Formerly,  in  Rio  Grande,  the  winter 
weather  was  uniformly  cold,  with  occasional  ice ;  rain 
came  in  its  proper  season,  and  the  summers  were  always 
warm,  with  more  or  less  intensity,  according  to  the  month. 


114     BEAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

"Wheat,  after  it  had  germinated  and  well  put  forth,  re- 
quired frost,  and  did  not  prosper  without  it.  His  prov- 
ince had  changed  so  much  in  its  seasons  that  in  the  month 
of  December  (middle  of  summer)  they  had  strong  frosts, 
with  ice,  as  in  winter,  and  in  July  and  August  they  had 
such  heat  as  to  cause  premature  germination  of  seed.  In 
consequence  of  such  irregularity  in  the  seasons,  as  had 
occurred  for  several  years  in  the  province  of  Rio  Grande, 
the  planters  of  wheat  began  to  despond,  seeing  that  they 
could  no  longer  harvest  the  crops  of  former  times,  and 
which,  indeed,  had  been  the  foundation  of  their  wealth. 
There  were  many  fortunes  to-day  whose  foundation  had 
been  the  production  of  wheat  in  previous  good  times. 
Consequently,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  was  in  perfectly  the 
same  condition  as  the  province  of  Ceara. 

"Without  doubt,"  continued  Senator  d'Avila,  "Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  has  magnificent  forests  in  her  mountains ; 
so  has  Ceara  mountain  riches  that  are  never  touched  by 
drought,  which  constantly  have  water,  water  permanently, 
but  the  mountains  can  not  save  the  valleys  of  Ceara.  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  has  fine  forests  in  her  mountains  but  none 
in  the  valley,  which  comprises  the  south  part  of  the 
province." 

Senator  Martins :  "  But  it  has  water." 

Senator  d'Avila :  "  Our  rivers  dry  up.  The  Santa 
Maria,  when  I  was  at  Uruguayana  (southwestern  frontier 
of  Brazil)  and  crossed  it,  was  completely  dry.  The 
drought  was  such  that  we  had  no  water  to  give  to  the 
animals  which  we  took,  and  some  of  which  perished  for 
want  of  water.  I  believe  the  Government  ought  to  cause 
studies  to  be  made,  as  it  did  in  Ceara,  for  irrigating  dif- 
ferent provinces — such  as  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  the  interior 
of  Bahia  and  Pemambuco,  and  the  region  of  the  upper 


SITTJATIOiT,   RESOURCES,  AND  CLIMATE.         115 

Sao  Francisco  Yalley ;  in  short,  to  ascertain,  if  possible, 
whether  their  waters  could  not  be  canalized  so  as  to  afford 
irrigation.  We  have  equally  in  Ceara  and  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul  little  dams  to  make  small  reservoirs  on  small  streams. 
There  are  owners  of  ranches  of  four  or  five  leagues  of 
land,  and  who  have  a  natural  supply  of  water  only  at  one 
extreme  end  of  the  pasture  or  campo,  and  so,  not  to  make 
the  cattle  travel  different  times  in  the  day  a  distance  of 
two,  three,  or  more  leagues,  to  drink,  they  make  little 
ponds  by  dams.  An  uncle  of  mine,  living  near  the  Jagu- 
aro  River,  had  one  of  these  in  which  he  also  had  excellent 
fish,  but  the  drought  of  one  year  caused  it  to  dry  up." 

The  average  temperature  at  Para  is  80°.  The  sum- 
mer temperature  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  about  T5°,  and  the 
winter  temperature  65°.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from 
the  east,  and  always  secure  to  the  country,  as  a  whole,  an 
abundance  of  earth-fattening  rain. 


CHAPTEK  YIII. 

AMEEICAN-BEAZILIAN   RELATIONS. 

Like  tlie  Americans,  the  Brazilians  take  more  interest 
in  what  occurs  in  Europe  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  outside  world.  They  concern  themselves  very  little 
about  what  takes  place  in  the  United  States.  If  a  great 
disaster  happens,  like  the  burning  of  the  Brooklyn  Theatre, 
or  a  President  is  assassinated,  they  may  possibly  get  the 
tidings  of  such  a  catastrophe  by  telegraph  in  the  course 
of  two  or  three  days.  Our  presidential  elections  are  im- 
portant, and  the  result  of  a  State  election  like  that  in  the 
State  of  Maine  on  the  8th  of  September,  two  months 
before  the  presidential  election,  would  be  regarded  by 
everybody  posted  in  American  affairs  as  indicative  of  the 
greater  contest  in  November,  and,  of  course,  would  be 
promptly  cabled  to  the  London  newspapers  ;  but  no  news 
whatever  about  that  election  came  to  Brazil.  A  leading 
journal  publishes  a  tolerably  fair  letter  from  a  l^ew  York 
correspondent  once  about  every  two  months;  but  the 
same  journal  prints  seventy-five  letters  from  Europe  to 
one  that  it  prints  from  the  United  States. 

The  London  daily  journals  of  March  9,  1885,  and  of 
some  preceding  dates,  arrived  at  Eio  de  Janeiro  March 
27th.     As  usual,  their  telegraphic  columns  were  filled 


AMERICAN-BRAZILIAK  RELATIONS.  117 

with  news  from  all  the  principal  countries,  and  the  "  Jor- 
nal  do  Commercio "  of  Kio  de  Janeiro  on  the  following 
morning,  as  is  its  custom,  had  a  column  filled  with  a 
synopsis  of  news  from  different  countries,  especially  from 
European  coimtries.  These  London  papers  contained  un- 
usually important  news  from  the  United  States — the  in- 
auguration of  the  new  President,  Mr.  Cleveland,  his  in- 
augural address  in  full,  the  names  of  his  Cabinet  minis- 
ters; the  appointment  of  General  Grant  as  general  on 
the  retired  list  of  the  army ;  also,  the  announcement  of 
General  Grant's  alarming  illness  and  probability  of  his 
early  decease.  American  news  is  first  received  at  Rio 
through  the  London  daily  newspapers,  and  all  these  facts 
made  an  unusual  amount  of  news  to  come  by  one  mail. 
Now,  would  it  1)0  thought  that  the  synopsis  of  news  in 
the  Rio  paper  from  the  London  journals  contained  no 
reference  whatever  to  the  United  States — not  a  word 
about  the  inauguration  of  the  new  President,  or  of  the 
dangerous  illness  of  General  and  ex-President  Grant? 
Yet  such  was  the  case.  ISio  allusion  was  made  to  any- 
thing that  had  occurred  in  the  United  States,  l^ov  had 
any  of  this  news  from  the  LTnited  States  been  published 
in  any  of  the  Rio  journals.  This  is  according  to  the 
usual  custom ;  and  I  think  it  shows  very  clearly  that  the 
Brazihans  take  little  note  or  interest  of  what  transpires  in 
the  North  American  republic. 

I  make  no  complaint  about  this ;  I  merely  state  the 
facts.  Probably  it  is  natural  that  the  Brazilians  should 
have  their  minds  more  constantly  fixed  on  Europe  than 
upon  the  "  Grand  Republic,"  as  they  speak  of  our  coun- 
try when  they  wish  to  be  very  polite,  though  their  news- 
papers frequently  style  the  Americans  "  Yankees."  Any- 
how it  is  well  for  our  Mr.  Spread-Eagle  to  laiow  that  the 


118    BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

whole  of  mankind  does  not  always  have  its  admiring  gaze 
fixed  on  our  country.  Still,  I  think  there  is  in  the  deep 
current  of  Brazilian  sentiment  and  thought  a  feeling  of 
respect  and  regard  for  the  United  States.  I  am  led  to 
this  conclusion  for  various  reasons.  It  is  certain  that  the 
Brazilians  recognize  America's  inventive  and  literary 
genius.  They  know  Longfellow  at  least,  and  they  know 
that  the  telegraph,  the  sewing-machine,  and  the  Atlantic 
cable  started  on  their  mighty  errands  from  our  shores. 
They  unite  with  people  everywhere  in  revering  such 
American  characters  as  Washington,  Franklin,  and  Lin- 
coln. In  common  with  most  other  countries  they  have 
had  proofs  of  the  traditional  moderation  and  justice  of 
the  American  Government  in  its  dealings  with  foreign 
countries.  As  straws  show  which  way  the  wind  blows,  I 
would  mention  that  I  once  attended  in  Eio  de  Janeiro  a 
sleight-of-hand  entertainment  in  the  principal  theatre, 
where  there  was  an  audience  of  about  two  thousand  per- 
sons. One  of  the  tricks  of  the  performer  was  to  draw  out 
of  a  bottle  the  flags,  one  by  one,  of  different  nations,  each 
being  saluted  with  more  or  less  applause.  The  Brazilian 
flag,  of  course,  received  the  most  favor,  and  quite  a  hearty 
round  of  applause  greeted  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  It  seemed 
to  me  the  American  flag  was  next  in  favor  to  the  Brazil- 
ian, and  I  remember  to  have  experienced  a  feehng  of  de- 
lighted surprise  at  the  incident.  The  Americans  are 
Brazil's  best  customers,  and,  on  grounds  of  interest,  the 
Brazilians  ought  to  be  very  friendly  to  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  during  our  civil  war  Brazilian 
sympathy,  unlike  that  of  Russia,  was  with  the  South. 

Steamships  like  the  Oregon,  which  lately  made  the 
passage  from  Queenstown  to  JSTew  York  in  six  days  and 
ten  hours,  would  make  the  voyage  from  Kew  York  to 


AMERICAN-BRAZILIAN  RELATIONS.  119 

Rio  de  Janeiro  in  eleven  days  and  a  half,  whereas  those 
now  running  occupy  twice  that  time.  Such  a  line  would 
give  our  country  a  prestige  in  South  America  which  she 
now  greatly  lacks.  It  would  revolutionize  trade  in  favor 
of  Americans.  With  the  new  railroad  development  that 
is  taking  place,  and  the  large  immigration  from  Europe 
to  the  four  countries  of  the  Argentine  Eepublic,  Uru- 
guay, Paraguay,  and  Brazil,  there  will  necessarily  be  an 
increase  of  the  foreign  trade  of  those  countries,  and  an 
enterprising  and  seasonable  step  on  the  part  of  Americans 
is  indispensable  if  they  would  have  a  large  share  of  it. 
At  present  twenty  steamships  a  month  from  leading  Eu- 
ropean ports  arrive  at  Eio  de  Janeiro  to  one  steamship 
that  arrives  there  from  the  United  States !  Increased 
means  of  transportation  from  the  United  States  to  Brazil 
would  greatly  help  American  trade.  At  the  same  time, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  our  export  trade  is  mainly 
dependent  on  the  goodness  and  cheapness  of  our  com- 
modities. 

The  Americans  import  from  Brazil,  and  mostly  from 
Eio,  over  three  hundred  million  pounds  of  coifee  a  year, 
some  of  which,  probably,  is  afterward  sold  as  Java.  It 
costs,  delivered  in  E'ew  York,  including  the  Brazihan 
export  tax,  ten  cents  a  pound.  Its  transportation  from 
Eio  to  Kew  York — five  thousand  miles — is-  remarkably 
cheap,  yet  profitable  to  the  carrier,  being  only  forty  cents 
a  bag,  or  less  than  a  third  of  a  cent  per  pound.  Why  is 
it  carried  so  cheaply  ?  Because  there  are  so  many  British 
and  other  foreign  steamships  in  South  American  waters. 
They  go  from  Europe  with  goods  for  Brazil  and  the  Eiver 
Plate,  and  need  return-cargoes.  About  two  of  these 
steamers  leave  Eio  every  week  for  E'ew  York,  and  go 
thence  to  Liverpool.     Americans  save  two  million  dollars 


120     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

a  year  in  freight  on  their  coffee,  through  this  abundance 
of  foreign  shipping.  The  present  American  hne  of 
steamers  between  'New  York  and  Eio  is  a  help  to  our 
export  trade  to  Brazil,  but  has  small  influence  on  freight 
froTYh  Brazil.  Brazil's  imports  amount  to  eighty  million 
dollars  a  year,  of  which  the  United  States  contributes  nine 
millions.  Our  chief  export  to  that  country  is  flour ;  but 
we  also  send  much  kerosene,  many  locomotives,  and  other 
machinery.  People  ask,  "  Why  don't  we  export  more 
goods  to  Brazil  % "  Partly  because  the  Brazilians  have  not 
the  money  to  buy  more,  partly  for  lack  of  more  frequent 
communication,  and  partly  because  they  can  get  suited 
better  elsewhere.  There  are,  I  repeat,  twenty  steamships 
a  month  arriving  in  Brazil  from  Europe  to  one  that  ar- 
rives from  the  United  States,  and  goods  can  be  got  there 
more  cheaply  from  Europe  than  from  the  United  States. 
There  is  at  Rio  an  American  who  sells  the  planters  much 
machinery  for  hulling  coffee,  but  who  manufactures  his 
machines  in  Scotland,  because  he  can  do  so  cheaper  than 
in  his  own  country.  Bio  consumes  thirty  thousand  bar- 
rels of  flour  a  month,  mostly  American.  The  bread  is  all 
made  by  bakers,  and,  though  very  good,  it  is  not  likely 
the  consumption  will  increase  rapidly,  unless  times  become 
flush.  The  finances  of  all  the  South  American  countries 
are  so  depressed,  their  currency  so  depreciated,  and  their 
need  for  high  import  taxes  so  imperative,  that  we  should 
not  entertain  extravagant  ideas  of  beneficial  reciprocal 
relations  with  them. 

American  manufactures  generally  have  a  good  name 
in  Brazil,  and  it  stands  our  manufacturers  in  hand  to  con- 
tinue to  put  conscience  in  their  goods.  A  contrary  course 
will  soon  wind  up  any  trade.  Brazilian  importers  some- 
times say  the  Americans  have  such  a  great  home  market 


AMERICAN-BRAZILIAN  RELATIONS.  121 

that  they  don't  wish  to  trouble  themselves  about  exporting 
to  foreign  countries.  The  Brazilians  have  been  accustomed 
to  rather  long  credits,  and  the  general  impression  is,  that 
Europeans  have  been  more  ready  to  indulge  them  in  this 
regard  than  our  people.  Americans  intending  to  begin 
an  export  trade  with  Brazil,  no  matter  how  excellent  their 
goods  may  be,  must  expect  at  first  to  make  some  sacrifice. 
It  is  as  much  as  the  Brazihan  consignee  can  do  to  sell 
goods  whose  mark  and  quality  are  well  known.  It  is 
more  than  he  can  be  expected  to  do  to  urge  upon  custom- 
ers goods  of  an  unknown  character.  He  will  not  do  this, 
and  an  exporter,  introducing  an  article  whose  name  and 
character  the  Brazilian  merchant  is  unacquainted  with, 
must  be  content  to  sell  it  at  some  loss  till  it  gets  favorably 
known.  After  that  he  may  expect  to  estabhsh  a  remu- 
nerative trade. 

Can  any  benefit  be  secured  through  a  reciprocity 
treaty?  The  Brazilians  appreciate  the  great  advantage 
their  country  derives  by  the  extensive  import  of  their 
coSee  into  the  United  States  free  of  duty.  Most  other 
countries,  including  Great  Britain,  impose  an  import  tax 
on  coffee,  rising  all  the  way  from  three  cents  to  fourteen 
cents  per  pound,  which  last  is  the  rate  imposed  by  France. 
Its  admission  free  of  duty  into  the  United  States  is  sub- 
stantially a  donation  of  several  million  dollars  a  year  to 
the  treasury  of  Brazil,  she  having  thereby  been  able  to 
collect  an  increased  export  tax  from  it,  amounting,  impe- 
rial and  provincial  together,  to  eleven  per  cent.  This  has 
helped  her,  probably,  in  spite  of  her  bad  finances,  to  late- 
ly procure  two  of  the  most  powerful  ships  of  war  that 
are  anywhere  afloat,  and  which  are  better  than  any  the 
United  States  possesses.  Although  there  has  not  been 
much  expression  of  gratitude  for  these  benefits,  Brazil 
11 


122     BRAZIL:  ITS  OOI^DITION'  AND  PROSPECTS. 

would  now,  I  am  sure,  promptly  negotiate  with  the 
United  States  a  reciprocity  treaty,  which  would  amelio- 
rate our  trade  with  her  in  some  degree ;  but  her  financial 
situation  is  so  straitened  that  she  could  not  and  would 
not  grant  us  those  benefits  which  ordinarily  we  would 
have  a  right  to  expect,  and  which  would  correspond  with 
the  advantage  we  afford  her  in  admitting  coffee  free. 

The  tendency  of  Brazil  to  develop  home  manufactures 
under  her  high  protective  tariff  will  natm-ally  cause  a  de- 
cline in  some  articles  of  our  exports,  and  yet  our  exports 
as  a  whole  may  continue  to  increase.  The  number  of  her 
cotton-mills  is  steadily  increasing.  There  are  cotton-mills 
in  the  city  of  Rio  run  by  steam  with  imported  coal,  that 
are  paying  well.  A  cotton-mill  at  Macaco,  an  hour  by 
railway  from  Rio,  which  was  burned  some  time  ago,  has 
recently  been  rebuilt,  and  has  eight  hundred  looms  in 
operation.  It  has  water-power,  and  facilities  for  steam- 
power  in  dry  weather.  It  makes  not  only  common  white 
cloth,  but  colored  and  mixed  cloths  for  men's  cheap  cloth- 
ing, and  is  earning  very  handsome  profits.  Already  there 
are  many  cotton-factories  in  the  country,  and  their  num- 
ber is  sure  to  increase.  Manufacturing  activity  in  Brazil 
will  make  an  increased  demand  for  machinery.  As  an 
example,  there  has  lately  been  a  large  company  formed  in 
the  province  of  Minas-Geraes  for  the  manufacture  of  lard, 
which  has  sent  to  the  United  States  an  agent  to  purchase 
machinery  for  the  equipment  of  the  factory.  Indeed,  it 
seems  reasonable  that,  in  proportion  as  the  industrial  skill 
and  activity  of  the  Brazihans  increase,  will  their  general 
power  of  consumption  likewise  increase.  Let  a  cotton- 
factory  be  started  in  a  place  which  is  now  a  sohtude : 
the  hundreds  of  operatives  which  it  will  assemble,  and 
who  will  help  to  form  the  village  around  it,  will  soon 


AMERICAN  BPwAZILIAN  RELATIONS.  123 

begin  to  wear  shoes  and  stockings  instead  of  going  bare- 
footed as  they  have  been  accustomed  to  do.  Their  wants 
will  increase,  and  the  receipt  of  regular  wages  will  develop 
among  them  a  power  of  j)urchase  which  before  was  al- 
most a  blank.  Manufacturers  help  to  civilize,  and  civili- 
zation makes  trade. 

I  am  aware  of  the  deep  interest  that  is  felt  in  the 
United  States  in  respect  of  the  increase  of  our  export 
trade,  and  especially  the  increase  of  exports  to  Brazil — by 
far  the  most  populous  and  important  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can countries.  While  it  is  desirable  that  every  pains  be 
taken  to  expand  our  export  trade  with  Brazil,  the  situa- 
tion of  our  trade  with  this  country  is  not,  however,  so  un- 
favorable as  some  persons  have  been  led  to  suppose.  We 
buy  from  Brazil  about  thirty  million  dollars'  worth  of 
coffee,  eight  million  dollars'  worth  of  rubber  and  sugar, 
hides,  and  other  products  amounting  in  all  to  upward  of 
fifty  million  dollars,  and  in  time  of  high  prices  sixty  mill- 
ion dollars  per  annum.  JSTone  of  these  things  which  we 
buy  of  Brazil  are  for  vanity  and  show,  but  they  are  all 
useful  and  good  for  our  people,  because  they  are  impor- 
tant elements  in  our  industrial  and  social  prosperity.  The 
coffee  is  cheap  and  good,  and  gives  cheer  to  the  tables  of 
the  rich  and  poor  alike.  The  rubber  which  we  buy  is 
worked  up  by  our  ingenious  artisans  to  the  great  profit  of 
our  industry.  ISTow,  because  Brazil  in  return  buys  only 
nine  or  ten  million  dollars'  worth  of  our  goods,  does  it 
prove  that  we  are  doing  a  losing  business  with  her  ?  May 
we  not  be  doing  a  trade  with  her  that  is  actually  quite 
profitable  to  our  people  ?  Is  it  not  something  such  a  case 
as  this  ?  A  is  a  large  manufacturer  of  pianos,  which  he 
sells  in  different  markets  at  a  good  profit.  He  buys  the 
larger  share  of  his  wood  and  material  of  B,  because  he 


124:     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

can  buy  it  cheaper  of  B  than  of  any  one  else.  Now,  be- 
cause B  does  not  take  his  pay  in  pianos,  is  there  any 
ground  for  A  complaining  that  his  trade  with  him  is  un- 
favorable ?  The  circumstances  are  not  exactly  the  same, 
but  the  principle  is  much  the  same,  in  respect  of  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  between  the  United  States  and  Brazil. 

Diplomatic  and  consular  officers,  if  competent  and 
properly  sustained,  can  be  useful  in  j)romoting  trade  and 
friendly  relations.  One  of  our  ablest  American  Secre- 
taries of  State,  Mr.  Marcy,  in  a  report  to  Congress,  said : 
"The  object  of  diplomatic  missions  is  to  adjust  differ- 
ences and  conduct  affairs  between  governments  in  regard 
to  their  political  and  commercial  relations,  and  to  furnish 
the  Government  at  home  with  information  touching  the 
country  to  wliich  the  mission  is  accredited,  more  full  and 
more  accurate  than  might  be  obtained  through  the  ordi- 
nary channels,  or  more  promptly  than  the  same  informa- 
tion might  otherwise  be  received."  That  our  Govern- 
ment may  not  make  an  improper  demand  on  a  foreign 
country,  and  one  that  it  will  be  obliged  finally  to  recede 
from  with  loss  of  credit,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  it  be  supplied  with  information,  in  case  of  some  sud- 
den emergency,  of  a  perfectly  reliable  character.  Its  rep- 
resentatives abroad,  therefore,  both  diplomatic  and  consu- 
lar, should  have  that  position  and  consideration,  in  the 
places  where  they  are  employed,  that  they  would  have 
ready  access  to  the  very  best  sources  of  information,  so 
that  they  could  truly  and  promptly  report  to  their  Gov- 
ernment in  any  sudden  emergency.  Access  to  such  infor- 
mation requires  friendly  social  relations  with  the  leading 
and  most  influential  people ;  relations  which  can  only  be 
maintained  by  character  and  a  hospitable  style  of  living. 
Unfortunately,  our  American  diplomatic  and  consular 


AMERICAN-BRAZILIAN  RELATIONS.  125 

siervice  has  not  been  and  is  not  half  as  well  sustained  as 
that  of  the  leading  European  countries.  Our  practice  in 
this  regard  has  been  eminently  "  pound  foolish  and  penny 
wise."  How  insignificant  would  be  the  cost  of  such  serv- 
ice on  a  liberal  scale,  compared  with  the  vast  outlay  when 
once  a  country  is  obliged  to  drop  peaceful  remedies  and 
resort  to  force !  A  small  example  of  this  occurs  to  me. 
Mr.  Welles,  Secretary  of  the  I^avy,  writing  I^ovember 
18,  1868,  relative  to  a  movement  against  Paraguay,  states 
that  on  a  former  occasion,  when  a  demonstration  was  made 
against  Paraguay,  a  naval  force  of  light-draught  vessels 
was  sent  out,  and  that  the  expedition  "  cost  the  Govern- 
ment several  million  dollars."  For  much  less  money  than 
that  the  Government  could  have  maintained  a  full  em- 
bassy in  Paraguay,  in  a  palace,  a  hundred  years ! 


CHAPTEK  IX. 


A  TRIP   mTO   THE   INTEEIOE. 


In  the  early  part  of  August,  1883,  I,  with  my  family, 
made  a  trip  into  the  great  province  of  Minas-Geraes  as 
far  as  the  town  of  Barbacena,  which,  though  on  an  ordi- 
nary atlas  appears  to  be  close  to  the  sea- coast,  is  yet  two 
hundred  and  thirty-four  miles  distant  from  Eio,  by  rail- 
way, in  the  interior.  In  going  we  went  a  roundabout 
way  by  Petropolis  and  returned  direct  by  rail.  We  left 
our  residence  in  Rua  (Jardim)  das  Larangeiras  at  1.45 
p.  M.,  Monday  July  30th,  and  drove  to  the  Petropolis 
steamboat,  distant  three  miles,  arriving  considerably  ahead 
of  time.  The  weather  had  been  unusually  warm  that 
day,  but  the  sky  was  overcast,  the  distant  mountains  con- 
siderably hidden  by  clouds,  and  the  breeze  from  across 
the  bay  felt  damp  but  fresh.  The  harbor  seemed  very 
quiet.  Six  or  eight  large  steamers  were  lying  in  sight, 
among  them  the  American  steamship  Finance,  which  had 
her  colors  displayed  and  steam  making,  apparently  for 
the  continuation  of  her  voyage  to  Santos — then  an  excep- 
tional movement.  A  few  little  boats  with  freight  were 
moving  about;  and  just  in  front  of  us  a  large  three- 
masted  sailing-vessel,  with  white-painted  hull  and  heavily 
loaded,  was  being  towed  by  a  propeller.     The  cabin  of 


A  TRIP  INTO   THE  INTERIOR.  127 

our  boat  had  a  number  of  settees  on  each  side  facing  the 
direction  we  were  going,  and  on  one  of  these  near  a  win- 
dow we  took  our  places,  and  went  to  reading  some  late 
American  newspapers.  The  boat  started  at  six  minutes 
after  three  o'clock,  and  at  half -past  three  we  were  pass- 
ing near  Government  Island — the  longest  and  largest  of 
the  numerous  islands  in  the  Kio  Bay,  covered  with  low 
green  foliage,  and  along  the  edge  of  which  are  a  number 
of  white  cottages  of  working  -  people.  Afterward  we 
passed  another  island  which  was  particularly  pretty  from 
the  varied  colors  of  its  foliage — dark  and  light  green — 
also  the  russet-colored  tops  of  the  mango-trees  of  diiferent 
shades,  from  the  russet  to  an  orange  tint.  The  shores 
were  somewhat  rocky,  with  occasional  exposed  places  of 
red  soil.  To  our  front  and  right  were  other  smaller  isl- 
ands, bearing  small  palms,  banana-trees,  and  green  bushes 
of  various  shades.  On  hill-sides  were  one  or  two  cleared 
patches.  The  highest  land  of  any  of  the  islands  did  not 
exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Looking  backward 
on  our  right,  the  hills  back  of  IST ictheroy  and  the  Sugar- 
Loaf  were  visible,  while  directly  behind  the  boat  was  Eio, 
dimly  seen  through  the  heavy  atmosphere.  In  front,  at  a 
distance,  were  high  mountains  draped  with  fleecy  clouds. 
Besides  ourselves  there  were  in  the  cabin  eleven  adult 
passengers  and  five  children.  The  cabin-floor  was  uncar- 
peted  and  clean.  After  an  hour's  passage  on  the  boat  we 
landed  and  walked  a  short  distance  to  the  railway  upon 
which,  after  half  an  hour's  run  through  a  level,  and  for 
the  first  part  swampy,  bush-covered,  wild,  and  thriftless- 
looking  country,  though  containing  an  occasional  dwelling 
and  some  patches  of  com  and  mandioca,  also  a  few  orange 
and  banana  trees,  the  foot  of  the  mountains  was  reached. 
Then  at  a  slow  pace  the  cars  were  pushed  up  the  mount- 


128     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITIOIT  AND  PROSPECTS. 

ain's  side  over  a  surface  well  wooded  with  deciduous  trees 
and  exposing  many  big  granite  rocks.  The  first  half  of 
the  way  the  soil  is  a  red  clay  mixed  with  granite,  but  ap- 
proaching the  summit  it  becomes  a  brown  loam.  We 
pass  granite  cuts  near  enough  to  touch  the  sides,  also 
high,  almost  overhanging,  rocks,  and  occasionally  a  de- 
clivity a  hundred  feet  or  more  down  and  somewhat  start- 
hng.  For  a  part  of  the  way  the  track  follows  the  rocky 
course  of  a  clear  stream.  Here  and  there  the  old,  wind- 
ing carriage-road  with  its  high  stone  embankment  is  visi-* 
ble.  The  vegetation  is  abundant,  the  trees  being  tall  and 
some  of  large  size.  Sometimes  the  views  are  fine,  but  on 
this  occasion  they  were  all  shut  out  by  wet  clouds  which 
actually  enveloped  us.  Three  quarters  of  an  hour  are  oc- 
cupied in  ascending  the  mountain  and  in  the  short  de- 
scent on  the  other  side  into  Petropolis,  making  about  two 
and  a  half  hours  for  the  whole  trip.  We  reached  the 
place  at  half-past  five  o'clock  and  drove  to  our  hotel. 
As  Petropolis  is  a  very  quiet  place,  it  is  the  queer  fashion 
there  for  people,  even  of  the  genteel  class,  to  go  to  the 
railway-station  at  the  time  the  train  arrives;  and  there 
was  quite  a  collection  of  people  at  the  station  the  evening 
we  arrived  there. 

The  next  day  we  made  some  excursions  through  and 
around  the  city,  and  very  much  enjoyed  seeing  the  pretty 
villas  with  fine  flower-gardens,  the  excellent  macadamized 
roads,  and  the  pebble-bottomed  streams.  The  situation 
of  Petropolis,  in  the  mountains  twenty-four  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea,  is  very  pleasant  and  healthful ;  and  foreign- 
ers arriving  at  Kio  de  Janeiro  during  the  warm  season 
between  ]N^ovember  and  June,  and  finding  the  heat  too 
great,  or  yellow  fever  prevailing,  can  obtain  a  quick  and 
perfectly  safe  retreat  at  this  mountain  resort.     The  Era- 


A  TEIP  INTO  THE  INTERIOR.  129 

peror's  summer  villa  was  built  there  about  forty  years 
ago,  and,  as  improvements  have  been  going  on  ever  since, 
it  has  become  a  most  attractive  as  well  as  healthful  and 
fashionable  summer  resort — the  principal  one,  indeed,  in 
Brazil.  The  diplomatic  body  usually  go  there  bag  and 
baggage  at  the  same  time  as  the  court,  and  stay  as  long, 
which  is  generally  from  December  till  June.  Petropolis 
lies  in  the  valleys  of  three  clear  streams,  which  have  been 
so  improved  by  the  engineer  and  gardener  that  they  are 
quite  a  feature  of  the  place.  Their  banks  are  even  with 
the  macadamized  street  or  road  on  either  side,  but  their 
channels  are  ten  to  fifteen  feet  deep,  with  sloping  and 
trim,  grass-covered  sides.  They  flow  gently  over  smooth, 
pebbly  bottoms,  and,  though  usually  shallow,  sometimes 
after  a  heavy  rain  overflow  their  banks.  They  are  crossed 
by  a  number  of  foot  and  other  bridges  having  bright-red 
railings,  and  shade-trees  are  growing  along  their  banks. 
Two  of  these  streams  coming  from  opposite  directions  in 
the  same  street  unite  in  the  square  of  Dom  Pedro  II, 
and,  after  flowing  through  the  centers  of  several  other 
streets  in  a  similar  deep  channel,  are  joined  by  another 
stream  of  like  character,  the  whole  forming  a  considerable 
river,  which  still  runs  for  some  distance  in  the  limits  of 
the  town,  and  then  over  numerous  foaming  rapids  de- 
scends the  western  slope  of  the  mountains  to  the  broad 
Parahyba.  Petropolis  includes  in  its  limits  several  con- 
ical hills,  about  five  hundred  feet  high,  composed  of  fer- 
tile red  soil,  mostly  covered  with  a  young  growth  of 
forest,  ever  verdant,  but  somewhat  variegated,  and  in 
which  the  dark  green  of  the  gracefully  clustered  bamboo 
and  the  lighter  shades  of  the  banana  are  noticeable.  Some 
of  the  hill-sides  show  patches  of  cultivation  and  tidy- 
looking  cottages.     Fine  mountain  scenery  is  visible  in 


130     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

various  directions.  There  are  several  extended  and  ample 
streets,  a  number  of  whicli  are  level,  containing  many 
separate,  spacious,  and  tasteful  dwellings,  with  the  grounds, 
lawns,  shrubbery,  and  flowers  which  so  much  adorn  the 
country  home,  and  which  seem  to  find  in  the  temperature 
of  Petropolis  their  natural  clime.  The  Emperor's  villa  is 
of  a  yellowish-brown  color,  and  rather  plain,  but  has  about 
twelve  acres  of  ground  with  trees  and  plants. 

Petropolis,  being  named  after  the  Emperor,  and  indeed 
founded  by  him,  is  naturally  the  object  of  his  deep  in- 
terest. The  place  with  its  outskirts  affords  many  miles  of 
pleasant  carriage  driveway  over  smooth  roads.  Its  busi- 
ness is  confined  to  one  central  street,  on  which  is  the  rail- 
way-station. The  working  population  is  nearly  all  Ger- 
man or  of  German  descent,  and  good  order  and  quiet  pre- 
vail. There  are  several  tolerably  comfortable  hotels,  with 
board  at  two  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents  a  day.  As 
might  be  supposed,  Petropolis  has  frequent  spells  of  rainy 
weather,  which  sometimes  last  fully  three  days.  In  al- 
most every  month,  too,  there  are  some  mornings  and  even- 
ings which  are  cold  enough  to  render  a  fire  indispensable 
for  comfoi^ ;  but  at  present  only  a  few  houses  are  pro- 
vided with  heating  accommodations.  With  good  open 
fireplaces  in  the  houses,  and  a  sufiiciency  of  dry  fuel,  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  place  would  become  greatly  im- 
proved. 

There  is  one  train  a  day  from  Petropolis  to  Eio,  start- 
ing at  7  A.  M.  The  fare  each  way  is  three  dollars.  A  few 
business  men  make  the  round  trip  daily,  and  state  that 
they  find  it  less  fatiguing  than  the  trip  between  Rio  and 
Tijuca. 

Having  engaged  transportation  the  preceding  after- 
noon, we,  on  Thursday  morning  at  five  o'clock,  left  Pe- 


A  TRIP  INTO  THE  INTERIOR.  131 

tropolis  by  stage  on  the  celebrated  Juiz  de  Fora  carriage- 
road  for  Entre  Kios,  there  to  take  the  railway  for  Barba- 
cena.  We  three  happened  to  be  the  only  passengers. 
The  stage  was  drawn  by  four  mules,  wliich  were  changed 
at  every  station  of  eight  miles.  We  made  good  time,  as 
the  road  was  smooth  (though  I  noticed  it  was  getting 
worn  and  out  of  repair),  and  reached  Entre  Rios  at  about 
ten  o'clock,  in  season  for  the  express-train  from  Eio.  The 
scenery  w^as  interesting  all  the  way.  Entre  Rios  seemed 
a  brisk  and  important  business  place,  especially  for  for- 
warding produce,  and  appeared  to  have  a  few  thousand 
inhabitants.  Continuing  our  journey  from  here  on  by 
rail,  we  reached  our  stopping-place,  Barbacena,  shortly 
after  four.  Carriages  in  city  style,  drawn  by  mules,  were 
at  the  station,  but  before  I  could  get  our  trunk  they  had 
all  disappeared  with  other  passengers ;  however,  one  soon 
came  back  in  which  we  were  taken  to  the  Italian  Hotel, 
the  principal  one  in  the  place.  We  found  the  weather 
uncomfortably  cold  and  damp.  I^^o  fires,  and  beds  had  to 
be  warmed  with  bottles  of  hot  water;  sleeping-rooms 
small,  beds  too  short,  big  cracks  in  the  floor  through  which 
one  could  look  into  an  untidy  room  below.  Dinner  at 
the  hotel  was  fair,  but  the  breakfast  the  next  morning 
was  better,  and  consisted  of  fried  potatoes,  fried  eggs  in 
peas,  tenderloin  of  pork  roasted,  fried  beef,  coffee,  and 
good  bread.  After  our  dinner  we  took  a  walk  through 
the  town  before  dark.  Barbacena  is  an  old  town  on  a 
ridge  of  land,  has  two  long  streets  paved  with  rough  but 
now  smoothly  worn  stones,  and  which  are  flanked  by  con- 
tinuous low  buildings.  There  are  three  old  but  rather 
neat-looking  churches,  with  shrubbery  and  trees  in  their 
grounds.  About  the  only  evidence  of  life  noticeable  in 
this  walk  was  a  brass  band  practicing  in  some  upper  room. 


132     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Could  we  have  been  comfortably  settled,  it  was  our  in- 
tention to  spend  several  days  in  tlie  place,  and  to  make 
some  excursions  into  the  surrounding  country.  But,  on 
account  of  the  raw,  chilly  temperature  in-doors,  we  de- 
cided to  start  homeward  the  next  morning.  Both  in  go- 
ing and  coming  I  made  many  notes  as  to  the  appearance 
of  the  country,  the  better  to  fix  the  facts  in  my  mind. 
The  route  from  Rio  to  Barbacena  by  railway  is  through 
one  of  the  oldest  and  best  coffee-producing  districts  in 
Brazil,  and  in  that  distance  passes  through  sixteen  tunnels 
and  crosses  two  separate  mountain-ranges  about  as  high  as 
the  Alleghanies  where  crossed  by  the  Pennsylvania  Cen- 
tral Railroad,  and  which  are  covered  with  a  fair  but  not 
dense  growth  of  hard-wood  trees,  and,  on  the  more  ele- 
vated parts,  some  tropical  pines  of  medium  size.  It  is 
between  these  mountain-ranges  that  the  road  \\dnds  for 
sixty  miles  along  the  banks  of  the  wide  but  frequently 
shallow  Parahyba  River. 

The  country  generally  is  exceedingly  broken  and  hilly, 
the  hills  for  the  most  part  being  twice  as  high  as  the  bluffs 
of  the  upper  Mississippi,  and  of  conical  form.  They 
seem  to  vary  from  one  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  in 
height,  and  often  reach  the  dignity  of  mountains.  Where 
uncultivated,  they  bear  thrifty  yet  small  second-growth 
timber ;  but,  after  getting  in  the  vicinity  of  Barbacena, 
they  become  devoid  of  timber,  and  in  the  dry,  or  winter 
season — which  was  the  time  of  our  trip — have  the  brown 
and  smooth  appearance  of  a  closely  fed  sheep-pasture. 
Yery  few  rocks  are  to  be  seen ;  but  in  some  places  ant- 
hills, of  smooth,  liard  exterior,  the  color  of  the  soil,  and 
four  or  five  feet  high,  are  disagreeably  numerous.  The 
prevailing  character  of  the  soil  is  a  red  clay,  mixed  with 
gravel,  and  is  evidently  fertile,  but  there  is  nothing  aston- 


A  TRIP  INTO  THE  INTERIOR.  133 

ishing  or  particularly  beautiful  in  tlie  natural  vegetation. 
At  long  intervals  some  fine,  tall  trees,  with  large  and 
handsome  orange-colored  blossoms,  may  be  seen,  and  there 
is  occasionally  a  blending  of  colors  that  about  equals,  but 
certainly  does  not  surpass,  the  Korth  American  foliage 
after  an  autumn  frost,  where,  on  some  forest  hill-side,  the 
green  and  the  scarlet,  the  orange  and  the  crimson,  are 
richly  mingled.  There  are  some  fences  of  rails  laid  upon 
crotched  stakes,  but  the  division  lines  between  estates 
often  consist  of  ditches,  with  the  earth  thrown  up  on  one 
side,  resembling  rifle-pits  or  field  fortifications,  and  which, 
being  straight  and  of  a  red  color,  are  at  a  distance  inter- 
esting objects.  Not  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  the 
land  is  under  cultivation,  and  some  of  it  appears  to  have 
been  worn  out  and  abandoned.  The  sight,  now  and  then, 
of  a  pack  of  mules,  with  produce  strung  over  their  backs 
in  baskets  or  bales,  and  the  most  primitive  of  wooden  and 
squeaking-wheeled  ox-carts — the  axle  revolving  with  the 
wheels — carts  such  as  might  have  come  into  Portugal  with 
the  first  Roman  or  Phoenician  colony,  also  the  absence  of 
all  modem  agricultural  implements,  tell  of  an  antiquated 
system  of  agriculture.  Indeed,  for  the  most  of  the  way 
along  this  route,  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  so  abruptly 
broken  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  use  the  plow,  let 
alone  the  planter  and  other  modern  implements.  The 
hoe  is  necessarily  almost  the  sole  implement  of  field-culti- 
vation, and  it  is  twice  as  large  and  heavy  as  the  hoe  which 
the  American  and  European  farmer  is  accustomed  to 
use. 

The  leading  crop  of  this  region  is  coffee,  plantations 

of  which  are  to  be  seen  as  far  out  as  the  neighborhood  of 

Retiro,  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  miles  from  Rio  de 

Janeiro.     As  a  rule,  the  soil  on  the  coffee-plantations  is 

12 


134:    BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION   AND  PROSPECTS. 

kept  as  clean  and  free  of  weeds  as  are  the  corn-fields  of 
the  most  careful  American  farmers,  who  are  accustomed 
to  till  the  soil  with  their  own  hands.  The  coffee-tree,  as 
it  is  called,  is  a  bush  from  six  to  eight  feet  high.  The 
red  soil  is  just  visible  between  the  rows  of  trees,  so  that 
at  a  distance  a  plantation  has  a  striped  appearance  of  green 
and  red,  which  is  very  pretty.  After  the  fruit  has  been 
stripped  off,  and  much  of  the  foliage  with  it,  the  tops  of 
the  trees  have  a  slightly  bluish  tinge. 

There  are  some  separate  coffee-plantations  which  cover 
several  thousand  acres,  and  which,  stretching  as  they  do 
over  bold,  circling  undulations,  present  a  beautiful  and 
even  grand  picture.  I^ot  the  rich,  grass-carpeted  valley 
of  the  Po,  with  its  plantations  of  the  mulberry,  the  wil- 
low, and  the  vine,  nor  the  blooming  cotton-fields  of  Texas, 
nor  any  agricultural  scene  that  I  have  anywhere  witnessed, 
in  the  Old  World  or  the  New,  can  rival  the  beauty  and 
magnificence  of  one  of  the  finely  cultivated,  mountain- 
covered  plantations  of  coffee  in  Brazil.  Visible  from  the 
railroad  are  a  few,  but  only  a  few,  handsome  residences 
of  coffee-planters. 

On  this  route  are  several  neat-looking  villages,  and  two 
or  three  towns  that  may  number  six  thousand  inhabitants. 
Among  these,  Juiz  de  Fora  is  perhaps  the  prettiest,  and 
is  situated  on  sloping  ground,  with  a  hill,  apparently  of 
granite,  just  behind  it.  Barbacena,  a  city  with  cobble- 
paved  streets,  and  situated  on  high  ground,  is  reputed  as 
healthful,  and  has  a  large  and  fairly  kept  hotel.  In  all 
•these  villages  and  towns  not  a  chimney  is  visible.  The 
houses  are  generally  one  to  two  stories  high,  the  walls 
stuccoed  in  white,  and  sometimes  blue,  pink,  yellow,  or 
green  color.  The  roofs  are  four-sided,  low,  and  covered 
with  heavy  red  tiles.     The  aspect  of  the  villages  and 


A  TRIP  INTO  THE  INTERIOR.  135 

towns,  amid  a  variety  of  trees,  including  generally  the 
banana  and  palm,  is,  on  the  whole,  cheerful,  and  the  in- 
habitants, so  far  as  the  traveler  by  railway  can  judge,  are 
temperate  and  contented.  The  houses,  or  rather  huts,  of 
the  poor  are  built  of  unburned  bricks,  are  of  a  brown  or 
earth  color,  have  wooden  window-shutters,  but  no  glass 
windows,  and  usually  palm-thatched  roofs.  Generally, 
near  the  house  is  a  Kttle  patch  of  ground  fenced  with  up- 
right poles  of  irregular  height.  Mules,  goats,  and  hogs 
are  the  kinds  of  Hve-stock  most  commonly  seen.  The 
railway-station  buildings,  though  not  spacious,  are  out- 
wardly neat.  They  are  of  concrete,  a  story  and  a  half 
high,  with  projecting  tiled  roofs,  walls  white  and  thick, 
with  a  strip  two  feet  in  width  painted  red  around  the 
base,  for  an  imitation  foundation.  The  station  Sitio,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Mantiqueira  range,  has  an  attractive  flower- 
garden  attached  to  it,  as  is  the  excellent  custom  in  some 
of  the  countries  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  which  always 
make  an  agreeable  impression  on  the  traveler. 

The  railway  on  this  line  is  owned  and  managed  by  the 
Government.  The  employes  wear  citizen's  clothing,  and 
are  unpretentious  in  their  manners.  The  cars  were  made 
in  Brazil,  the  inside  finish  being  of  light-colored  hard 
wood,  with  cane-seated,  high-back  chairs,  in  pairs,  perma- 
nently fixed,  and  facing  each  other,  on  each  side  of  the 
car,  with  a  passage-way  in  the  center.  Closets  are  at- 
tached to  the  cars,  after  the  American  system.  It  is  the 
fashion  among  Brazilian  male  passengers  to  wear  brown 
or  white  linen  overcoats  to  keep  off  the  dust,  and  to  smoke 
cigarettes  in  any  car,  as  a  matter  of  course.  There  are  no 
separate  cars  for  ladies.  There  is  no  discrimination  on 
account  of  color.  In  going  from  Rio  passengers  get  a 
late  breakfast  at  Barra  de  Pirahy,  and  on  the  return  trip 


136     BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

dine  at  the  same  place.  One  dollar  is  charged  for  a  meal. 
Pure  and  good  black  coffee,  in  small  cups,  with  other  re- 
freshments, is  served  at  Entre  Eios,  and  several  other 
places.  On  the  whole,  I  think  that  American  visitors  to 
Brazil  would  find  a  trip  into  the  interior,  on  this  or  some 
other  route,  highly  interesting,  and  such  as  would  leave 
lasting  and  agreeable  impressions  on  the  mind. 


CHAPTER  X. 

VISIT   TO   A   COFFEE-rLANTATION. 

Sao  Paulo,  besides  its  seaport,  Santos,  and  its  capital, 
the  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  contains  several  important  business 
centers,  and,  as  it  is  supposed  to  possess  the  best  agricult- 
ural resources  of  any  province,  I  desired  to  make  a  visit 
there  at  the  first  convenient  opportunity.  My  interest 
had  been  increased  by  hearing  people  speak  of  its  capital 
as  being  the  most  American  of  any  city  in  Brazil.  The 
day  fixed  for  starting  was  the  1st  of  May,  1884,  and,  as  I 
was  to  be  accompanied  by  my  wife  and  daughter,  we  all 
thought  it  would  be  the  more  pleasant  to  go  by  steamship 
from  Rio  to  Santos,  and  return  to  Rio  by  rail,  which  we 
did.  We  embarked  at  noon,  on  the  steamship  Crown 
Prince  Frederick  William,  and  I  must  say  that  I  did  not 
quite  relish  the  idea  of  having  to  deliver  up  my  passport 
to  the  steamship  agents — so  that  a  permit  from  the  Bra- 
zilian authorities  for  my  leaving  port  could  be  obtained — 
before  I  could  have  the  privilege  of  buying  tickets.  But 
no  foreigner  can  leave  any  Brazilian  port  without  first 
obtaining  a  pass  from  the  chief  of  police — a  frivolous  and 
burdensome  usage.  It  was  one  o'clock  p.  m.  when  we 
began  to  steam  out  of  the  harbor  and  tui'n  southward. 
The  weather  was  perfectly  clear  and  delightful.  Twenty 
months  had  passed  since  we  had  first  entered  the  harbor 


138     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PPwOSPECTS. 

of  Rio,  and  it  was  with  peculiar  feelings  that  we  now 
again,  from  a  steamer's  deck,  surveyed  the  same  extended 
and  striking  view  of  mountains  and  city  that  then  opened 
before  us.  The  sea  continued  smooth  and  the  weather 
very  pleasant  all  the  afternoon  and  till  bedtime.  In  a 
couple  of  hours  after  leaving  Rio  the  mountain  scenery 
along  the  coast  becomes  somewhat  grand,  and  more  beau- 
tiful than  about  Rio.  The  mountains,  though  generally 
covered  with  green  forest,  present  a  variety  of  forms,  and 
it  was  very  pleasant  to  sit  under  a  canvas  awning,  or  walk 
the  deck,  and  watch  the  changing  views.  On  retiring  at 
night  we  had  every  expectation  of  arriving  at  Santos  at 
the  usual  time,  which  would  have  been  early  the  next 
morning.  But  a  sharp  rain-  and  thunder-storm  rose  in  the 
night,  during  which  the  ship  pitched  and  rolled  a  good 
deal,  and  the  captain  thought  it  pnident  to  stop,  as  there 
are  several  rather  dangerous  islands  on  the  route  between 
Rio  and  Santos.  The  result  was  that  we  did  not  reach 
Santos  till  four  o'clock  the  next  afternoon.  Santos  is 
situated  out  of  siglit  from  the  sea,  on  a  river  not  much 
wider  than  a  canal,  and  it  requires  careful  navigating  for 
half  an  hour  to  get  up  to  it ;  and  when  one  does  get  to  it 
there  is  nothing  attractive  to  be  seen.  The  banks  of  the 
river  are  muddy  and  filthy,  though  the  tide  comes  up 
sometimes.  There  are  a  few  wharves,  to  which  large 
steamships  were  moored.  The  city  itself  has  an  anti- 
quated appearance,  and  its  narrow  streets  are  compactly 
built  up.  The  most  striking  object,  on  coming  up  to  the 
city,  is  the  custom-house,  which,  though  small,  is  some- 
what showy. 

The  hotel  to  which  we  went  was  old,  situated  in  a 
block  of  buildings,  and  had  only  an  up-stairs  entrance, 
direct  from  the  street.     The  rooms  and  furniture  left 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  139 

considerable  to  be  desired,  but  tbe  table  was  good.  The 
dining-room  being  small,  I  could  not  but  notice  that  the 
practice  of  gentlemen — probably  the  most  of  them  for- 
eigners— ^lighting  their  cigars  and  smoking  for  a  while  at 
the  table  seemed  to  have  given  the  room  a  permanently 
stale  smell  of  tobacco-smoke.  There  was  a  heavy  shower 
during  the  night,  but  the  next  day  was  pleasant,  and  in 
the  forenoon,  in  company  with  the  wife  of  the  American 
consul,  a  Brazilian  lady,  and  her  daughter,  we  made  an 
excursion  of  a  couple  of  miles  or  so  in  the  horse-cars,  to 
the  sea-beach,  which  is  very  long,  and  affords  an  extensive 
driveway.  A  number  of  genteel  cottages  are  occupied 
along  the  edge  of  the  woods  which  border  the  beach.  In 
going  there  from  the  city  the  way  is  over  level  land,  and  it 
appeared  to  me  that  there  was  enough  well-situated  ground 
for  the  site  of  a  large  city.  I  suppose  it  is  all  laid  out 
into  lots.  Leaving  Santos  at  haK-past  two  p.  m.,  on  the 
railway,  we  arrived  at  Sao  Paulo  about  six  o'clock.  For 
the  first  half -hour  the  road  is  over  low,  level  land,  covered 
with  bushes.  In  the  course  of  twenty  minutes  we  cross  a 
wide  stream,  near  to  which  is  the  first  station.  The  sta- 
tion-building is  of  brick,  one  story  high,  of  light-yellow 
color,  with  a  zinc  roof,  which  projects  six  feet  beyond  the 
wall,  and  is  supported  by  an  iron  frame.  On  one  side  of 
the  road  the  forest  is  only  a  rifle-shot  distant,  while  behind 
the  station-building  there  is  a  slightly  de'scending  bush- 
covered  surface  for  about  a  mile,  and  then  hills,  and 
mountains  a  thousand  feet  high,  covered  with  forest. 
We  were  going  through  a  valley,  and  getting  nearer  the 
mountains,  and  in  ten  minutes  from  this  first  station  were 
on  an  ascending  grade,  in  the  vicinity  of  second-growth 
timber,  rank  weeds,  and  rich  soil  washed  from  hills  near 
by.     At  ten  minutes  past  three  we  arrived  at  the  foot  of 


140     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

the  serra,  a  green,  forest-covered  mountain-side,  a  mile 
distant,  on  our  left,  and  another,  half  a  mile  distant,  on 
our  right.  At  the  station  are  a  telegraph-office,  a  bar,  and 
also  closets.  Near  by  are  two  or  three  adobe  houses  of  the 
poor  people,  with  small  grounds,  fenced  with  close-stand- 
ing, slender  stakes.  The  weather  was  warm,  and  the  in- 
sects troublesome.  At  3.35  we  began  the  ascent  of  tlie 
serra,  in  a  railway-car  pulled  up  by  an  iron  cable,  and 
reached  the  top  at  4.16.  There  were  some  fine  views  on 
the  way  up,  both  of  mountains  on  our  left  and  of  sea  and 
mountains  behind.  We  also  felt  the  air  delightfully 
cooler  as  we  got  near  the  summit.  Among  the  passengers 
were  some  German  business  men,  going  up  from  Santos 
to  spend  Sunday  at  Sao  Paulo.  At  the  summit  station  a 
number  of  working-men  were  standing  about,  dressed  in 
blue  cotton  clothes. 

From  the  point  where  we  reached  the  high  land  all 
the  way  to  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  I  watched  the  soil 
very  closely  and  was  surprised  to  see  that  so  much  of  it 
was  apparently  poor.  At  4.40  we  came  to  a  station  where 
there  were  a  saw-mill,  a  few  houses,  and  some  cleared 
ground,  with  old  stumps,  resembling  an  American  pasture. 
We  had  been  about  twenty  minutes  coming  to  this  point 
from  the  summit,  much  of  the  way  being  descending,  the 
surface  generally  undulating,  rather  wet  and  bush-covered. 
We  soon  ascend  another  ridge  covered  with  timber.  At 
5  A.  M.  we  reach  a  station,  where  there  are  wooden  build- 
ings surrounded  by  partly  cleared  land ;  thence  we  soon 
entered  a  narrow  prairie.  At  5.12,  the  station  of  Sao  Ber- 
nardo, with  good  brick  buildings,  on  nearly  level  cainpos  j 
after  that,  smooth,  undulating  land  and  occasionally  rocks. 
At  5.4,  reached  station  of  Braz  near  Sao  Paulo,  where  the 
tickets  were  taken  up.    Yery  pretty  surrounding  country. 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  141 

It  was  just  sundown  ;  the  weather  was  pleasant,  but  I  felt 
the  need  of  putting  on  a  light  overcoat.  In  about  eight 
minutes  more  we  were  at  the  last  station.  We  had  to  wait 
twenty-five  minutes  for  our  trunk  before  we  could  start 
in  a  carriage  for  the  hotel.  The  number  of  every  piece 
of  baggage  as  it  is  taken  from  the  car  is  checked  in  a  book 
by  an  employe.  The  convenient  system  of  checks  as  in 
the  United  States  is  not  used,  but  a  paper  receipt  is  given 
at  the  beginning  of  the  journey,  whicli  must  be  given  up 
before  getting  the  baggage. 

My  impressions  of  the  country  between  Santos  and 
Sao  Paulo  were  penciled  down  May  4,  as  follows :  "  On 
the  whole,  the  soil  between  Santos  and  Sao  Paulo  appears 
only  third  rate.  The  mountain-slope  toward  Santos  and 
the  sea  is  densely  covered  with  a  small  growth  of  hard- 
wood forest.  The  trees  seem  of  uniform  height,  and  there 
is  but  little  variety  in  the  shade  of  dark-green  of  the  foli- 
age. Looking  off  and  down  on  the  left  side  from  the  rail- 
way, the  mountain  -  slope  shows  numerous  but  not  deep 
ravines,  all  timber-covered.  The  view  is  not  as  imposing 
as  we  had  been  led  to  expect.  "We  had  one  view  of  the 
sea  and  intervening  valley.  After  getting  to  the  summit 
there  is  but  little  descent  to  Sao  Paulo;  what  there  is 
seems  to  be  offset  by  ascent.  Leaving  the  summit  station, 
we  came,  at  about  twenty-five  miles  an  hour,  through  a 
moderately  undulating  country,  with  more  or  less  timber 
and  bushes.  Say  at  five  o'clock,  we  entered  the  campos^ 
though  still  some  timber  at  a  distance.  The  campos 
begins  as  a  narrow  prairie,  sloping  a  little  to  our  right. 
Ther&  is  some  meadow-land  with  rather  poor  meadow- 
grass.  Much  of  the  land  shows  need  of  drainage.  A 
few  straight  ditches  have  been  dug.  As  we  were  forty 
minutes  coming  to  Sao  Paulo  after  striking  the  campos, 


142     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

I  suppose  we  passed  over  fifteen  miles  of  such  surface. 
Scarcely  any  of  the  land  is  fenced.  We  saw  two  or  three 
insignificant  patches  of  com  already  ripe,  but  in  the  whole 
distance  there  was  not  visible  one  well-cultivated  field  of 
any  sort  of  crop.  "We  did  not  see  in  all  more  than  fifty 
head  of  cattle,  very  few  dwellings,  and  those  very  small  and 
generally  of  adobe.  Of  trees  a  few  stunted  palms  were 
seen  ;  also  green-leaved  trees  such  as  are  commonly  seen, 
a  few  quite  tall  and  slender,  some  with  green  parasites ; 
but  mostly  the  forest  vegetation  does  not  rise  above  the 
dignity  of  bushes ;  and  many  of  the  trees,  indeed,  from 
their  sickly  appearance,  might  be  fancied  to  be  witnesses 
rising  up  to  testify  to  the  poorness  of  the  soil.  With 
drainage  and  good  cultivation,  no  doubt,  the  soil  would 
produce  fair  crops,  but  in  its  natural  condition  it  presents 
a  great  contrast  to  that  fertility  which  is  so  much  vaunted 
in  respect  to  Brazil." 

In  a  conversation  which  I  had  in  Sao  Paulo  with 
Brigadier  -  General  Magelhaes,  a  Brazilian  who  is  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  country,  he  told  me  that  the  soil  between 
Santos  and  Sao  Paulo  "  is  not  even  third  rate " ;  that  it 
contains  no  lime,  and  is  fit  only  for  the  vine ;  that  there 
is  very  little  good  land  near  Sao  Paulo,  though  there  is  a 
strip  that  is  good,  a  league  square,  toward  the  west.  He 
says  that  three  fourths  of  the  land  in  the  province  of  Sao 
Paulo  is  good ;  but  that,  in  respect  of  Brazil  as  a  whole, 
only  a  hundredth  part  of  the  land  is  fit  for  cultivation. 

The  city  of  Sao  Paulo  is  the  most  famous  imd  impor- 
tant of  all  the  interior  towns  of  Brazil,  its  history  being 
interwoven  with  turbulent  political  events  of  early  times. 
It  has  a  pleasant  and  elevated  situation  on  an  undulating 
bank  of  the  Tiete  Eiver,  where  it  is  but  little  more  than  a 
brook ;  and  in  any  season  of  the  year,  with  its  green-topped 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATIOK  143 

trees,  including  a  few  palms  amid  light-colored  walls,  red- 
tiled  roofs,  and  old  cliurcli-towers,  lias  a  striking  appear- 
ance. Looking  down  from  tlie  city  toward  the  river,  the 
opposite  and  lower  side  is  considerably  built  upon,  but 
farther  on  is  a  wide  expanse  like  a  meadow,  and  then  be- 
gins a  rolling  prairie  which,  after  a  stretch  of  eight  or  ten 
miles,  is  closed  in  by  a  range  of  forest-covered  hills.  It 
is  in  this  lower  and  newer  part  of  the  city,  and  near  the 
stream,  that  the  Public  Garden  is  situated.  We  spent  some 
hours  in  it  on  a  pleasant  forenoon.  It  comprises  about 
twelve  acres,  and  there  is  room  for  its  extension.  It  has 
fine  shaded  walks  and  neat  ponds.  One  of  its  chief  feat- 
ures is  an  avenue  of  figueira,  or  wild  fig-trees,  which 
resemble  the  American  live-oak.  Among  a  variety  of 
trees  I  noticed  two  small  American  or  English  white  oaks. 
Eeally,  a  great  deal  of  taste,  enterprise,  p-nd  skill  is  dis- 
played in  this  garden.  There  is  a  pretty  high  tower  for 
an  observatory,  and  the  superintendent  has  his  residence 
in  the  grounds.  ^Nothing,  in  my  opinion,  reflects  greater 
credit  on  a  place  than  ample  and  well-arranged  grounds 
in  a  convenient  locality  for  a  public  garden  or  park.  This 
one  was  not  for  driving,  but  simply  for  pedestrians.  Op- 
posite this  park  are  the  old  and  extensive  buildings  of  the 
Catholic  Theological  Seminary  of  the  diocese. 

A  very  pleasant  set  of  rooms  commanding  a  fine  view 
had  been  engaged  for  us  at  the  principal  hotel.  This  ho- 
tel, now  owned  and  kept  by  a  German,  is,  as  a  building, 
the  largest  and  best  hotel  in  all  Brazil.  Its  rooms  and 
furniture  are  the  best  of  any  in  Brazil.  It  is  a  respect- 
able and  orderly  family  hotel,  and  has,  I  believe,  no  bill- 
iard -  table  nor  bar.  The  furniture  is  black  walnut  and 
American.  The  beds  are  comfortable  and  clean.  The 
dining-room  is  spacious,  but  the  table  is  not  as  good  as 


IM     BRAZIL:   ITS  COKDITIOIT  AND  PROSPECTS, 

a  traveler  has  a  right  to  expect.  It  is  a  little  too  scrimpy 
and  plain.  From  the  published  list  of  guests,  I  infer  that 
the  French  hotel  on  the  other  side  of  the  same  street  is 
better  patronized.  However,  I  learn  that  the  proprietor 
of  the  hotel  I  am  speaking  of  is  clearing  eight  per  cent 
on  the  capital  invested.  The  hotel  is  closed  at  ten  o'clock 
every  evening.  The  front  door  is  then  locked,  the  lights 
put  out,  and  the  waiter  for  each  floor  then  goes  to  bed  on 
a  cot  in  the  hall  near  the  stairway. 

Sao  Paulo  has  unquestionably  the  finest  shop  for  a 
book  and  stationery  store  combined  that  there  is  in  Brazil. 
It  is  kept  by  Frenchmen,  and  was  visited  by  the  Princess 
Imperial  during  her  recent  visit  to  that  city.  Her  Impe- 
rial Highness  condescended  to  accept  as  a  present  from 
the  proprietors  an  elegantly  bound  and  illustrated  volume. 
(I  also  was  presented  with  a  volume — a  catalogue  in  paper 
binding.)  Among  the  prominent  things  in  Sao  Paulo  is 
the  National  Law  School,  mentioned  elsewhere,  and  kept 
in  an  antiquated  convent  pile.  I  should  judge  also  that 
the  mansion  and  offices  of  the  president  of  the  province 
were  once  an  ecclesiastical  edifice.  How  generous  and 
public-spirited  the  Church  must  be,  thus  to  give  its  ven- 
erable buildings  to  the  Government !  Military  sentinels 
were  posted  at  the  doors  of  the  presidential  offices.  The 
bishop's  residence  is  also  well  situated.  The  city  is  well 
supplied  with  street-railways,  and  those  through  the  newer 
part  of  the  city  afford  the  visitor  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
a  few  expensive  and  pretty  villas. 

With  the  Eev.  Dr.  John  Cross,  British  chaplain,  I 
went  to  see  his  church.  It  is  constructed  after  the  style 
of  many  American  Episcopal  churches,  especially  its  inte- 
rior, the  ceiling  extending  to  the  roof,  and  being  finished 
in  the  dark  and  natural  color  of  the  wood.     It  was  all 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  145 

neat  and  tasteful,  and  I  was  struck  with  the  appearance 
of  several  kinds  of  Brazilian  wood  used  for  the  interior 
finish.  From  there,  Dr.  Cross  took  me  to  see  the  ma- 
chine-shops of  the  Santos  and  Sao  Paulo  Kailroad  Com- 
pany, to  which  I  had  been  invited  by  Mr.  Bai'ker,  the 
manager.  Connected  with  the  offices  are  a  library  and 
reading-room,  and  a  billiard-room  adjoining,  all  for  the 
use  of  the  clerks  and  other  employes  of  the  company. 
I  had  never  before  seen  anything  of  the  sort,  and  was 
most  favorably  impressed  by  such  thoughtful  provision 
for  the  recreation,  instruction,  and  amusement  of  corpora- 
tion employes.  These  rooms  were  on  the  lower  floor,  spa- 
cious, well  lighted,  and  pleasant.  In  the  reading-room 
was  a  large  table  where  were  the  latest  London  newspa- 
pers and  periodicals.  The  books  composing  the  library, 
which  probably  numbered  six  hundred  volumes,  were 
mostly  English;  they  were  modern  and  well  selected. 
Everything  is  free,  except  that  one  milreis  a  month  is 
paid  for  the  use  of  the  books. 

From  Mr.  Barker  I  received  some  information  in  re- 
spect to  wages  and  other  matters.  The  railroad  company 
gets  its  sldlled  mechanics  from  England  by  contract,  pay- 
ing one  hundred  and  eighty  milreis  (seventy-two  dollars) 
a  month,  and  no  deduction  during  sickness  or  holidays ; 
after  three  years  they  get  one  hundred  and  ninety  milreis 
a  month.  Native  carpenters  are  paid  two  dollars  a  day, 
laborers  eighty  cents  a  day.  Apprentices  are  paid  twenty 
cents  a  day,  with  an  annual  increase  in  the  same  amount ; 
they  serve  from  five  to  seven  years.  The  rule  for  all  is 
to  work  fifty-two  hours  in  a  week,  and  the  work  is  dis- 
tributed so  as  to  let  them  quit  some  hours  before  night 
on  Saturdays,  which  is  the  common  rule  in  England. 

The  work  of  the  machine-shops  consists  of  foundry- 
13 


146     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

work  and  car-building  and  repairing.  And  here  comes 
a  singular  fact  for  a  country  so  endowed  with  forests  as 
Brazil  is  supposed  to  be:  The  timber  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  cars  is  tecik^  grown  in  and  imported  from 
India  through  England !  It  resembles  white  oak,  but  is 
more  durable,  and  handsomer,  and  is  the  sort  of  timber 
that  decks  and  the  tops  of  railings  on  the  best  steamships 
are  made  of.  However,  considerable  Brazilian  lumber  is 
used  in  the  shops,  and  Mr.  Barker  says  it  is  found  to  be 
very  good. 

The  rate  of  transportation  of  coffee  on  this  railway  is 
very  high,  being  something  over  two  hundred  reis,  or  eight 
cents,  per  ton  per  kilometre.  The  Santos  and  Sao  Faido 
Railroad  Company  had  a  guarantee  from  the  Brazihan 
Government  of  the  payment  of  seven  per  cent  interest ; 
but  the  road  must  earn  its  working  expenses  to  get  the 
guarantee,  and  after  its  earnings  exceed  its  expenses  it 
must  divide  the  profit  with  the  Government,  which  still 
pays  the  guarantee,  till  all  that  has  been  paid  in  the  way 
of  guarantee  is  returned  to  the  Government.  Hence,  the 
Government  is  not  inclined  to  have  the  road  reduce  its 
rates  of  transportation. 

The  Sunday  we  passed  in  Sao  Paulo  we  attended  re- 
ligious services  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  under  the 
charge  of  the  American  missionary,  Pev.  George  W. 
Chamberlain,  walking  there  and  back,  the  distance  being 
about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  from  our  hotel.  Mr.  Cham- 
berlain, who  has  been  a  mission  aiy  in  Brazil  fifteen  or 
twenty  years,  preached  an  extemporaneous  sermon  in  the 
Portuguese  language  to  a  respectable  and  devout  congre- 
gation of  about  two  hundred,  nearly  all  white  Brazilians. 
The  singing  was  by  the  congregation.  The  sacrament  was 
administered  in  the  same  form  that  is  customary  in  the 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  147 

Congregational  and  Baptist  churches — the  deacons  carry- 
ing the  bread  and  wine  to  the  communicants  at  their  seats. 
A  large  majority  of  the  congregation  partook.  I  was  sur- 
prised at  the  large  size  of  the  church-building.  It  will 
accommodate  an  audience  of  nearly  a  thousand.  Its  ceil- 
ing is  very  high,  and  it  has  a  new,  fresh,  and  pleasant  ap- 
pearance. On  the  wall,  behind  the  pulpit,  the  ten  com- 
mandments are  legibly  inscribed  in  Portuguese  ;  also, 
there  are  two  large  and  finely  colored  maps  of  the  world. 

The  next  day  we  went  to  take  a  fuller  look  at  the 
church,  and  to  visit  the  day-school  connected  with  the 
mission.  On  that  occasion,  Mr.  Chamberlain  told  me  that 
the  ground,  an  acre  and  a  half,  bought  in  1875,  and  the 
church  and  school-buildings,  cost  in  all  about  eighty  thou- 
sand milreis  at  that  time,  say  thirty- four  thousand  dollai'S. 
The  church  alone  cost  thirty-five  thousand  milreis,  or  fif- 
teen thousand  doUars.  It  is  of  wood,  and  the  material  was 
brought  from  the  United  States.  Around  the  grounds  are 
a  nmnber  of  tall  eucalyptus-trees.  The  school  corresponds 
to  a  good  grammar-school.  There  were  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pupils,  besides  twenty  in  the  Kindergarten.  Boys 
and  girls  were  in  the  same  room.  It  appeared  to  be  a 
very  well  managed  school.  It  was  once  visited  by  the 
Emperor  himself,  and  in  a  subsequent  conversation  with 
Mr.  Chamberlain  he  complimented  the  school,  but  said  he 
regretted  its  proselyting  influence.  Mr.  Chamberlain  dis- 
claimed its  having  such  a  purpose,  and  said  that  religious 
but  not  sectarian  instruction  was  given  in  the  school. 

I  would  here  say  that  Mr.  Chamberlain  is  known  in 
Sao  Paulo  as  the  Padre  Americano^  or  American  priest. 
He  is  an  energetic,  active,  and  effective  man,  highly  re- 
spected by  all  classes,  and  exerts  a  large  influence.  His 
residence,  on  ample  grounds,  selected  at  a  favorable  time, 


148     BRAZn.:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

is  about  a  mile  from  the  older  part  of  the  city ;  and  there, 
one  evening,  we  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  a  party  of 
about  thirty  ladies  and  gentlemen  who  are  residents  of 
Sao  Paulo.  There  was  some  good  music.  In  a  conversa- 
tion with  an  intelligent  and  candid  Brazilian  who  was  pres- 
ent I  remarked  that  I  admired  the  courage  and  tenacity 
with  which  the  Portuguese  settlers  in  Brazil  defended 
themselves  against  the  French  and  Dutch  ;  that  it  ap- 
peared to  me  it  surpassed  what  they  had  done  in  their 
native  country.  He  replied :  '^  The  Tupay  Indians  did 
the  fighting ;  they  are  entitled  to  more  credit  than  the 
Portuguese.  Those  Indians  were  a  remarkable  race."  I 
inquired  if  those  Indians  had  become  extinct.  He  said, 
not  entirely ;  but  they  are  mixed  more  or  less  with  the 
Brazilians. 

We  visited  the  Law  School,  which,  however,  was  hav- 
ing a  vacation.  It  is  kept  in  an  old  Jesuit  church  and 
monastery,  the  mud  walls  of  which,  white  outside,  are 
two  and  a  half  feet  thick.  Besides  the  room  for  the 
library,  there  are  two  fine  large  rooms  or  halls,  with  sev- 
eral full-length  portraits  of  professors,  and  in  an  inner 
room  was  a  good  full-length  portrait  of  the  Emperor, 
Dom  Pedro  II.  The  library-room  was  undergoing  re- 
pairs, and  the  books  were  mostly  on  the  floor,  which  was 
carpeted.  They  had  a  French  look  outside,  and  the  most 
were  apparently  a  century  or  so  old.  The  only  English 
law-books  were  Burns's  "Justice"  and  Chitty's  "Com- 
mercial Law."  There  were  no  American  law-books  that 
I  could  discover  except  three  copies,  in  two  volumes  each, 
of  Wheaton's  "International  Law,"  in  French.  There 
was  a  set  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  but  apparently 
not  the  later  volumes. 

The  old  church  in  the  same  pile  of  buildings,  though 


VISIT  TO  A  OOFFEE-PLANTATIOK  149 

of  small  dimensions,  is  an  historical  curiosity.  Of  its 
paintings  the  one  that  struck  me  most  was  a  full,  life-sized 
portrait  on  the  ceiling  in  strong  colors  of  some  holj  man 
on  bended  knees,  with  eyes  upturned  as  if  in  the  act  of 
invoking  a  divine  blessing.  The  verdant,  rolling  land- 
scape about  him  resembled  the  beautiful  expanse  which 
surrounds  the  venerable  city  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  the  pleas- 
ing thought  occurred  to  me,  as  I  stood  gazing  at  the  pict- 
ure, that  it  probably  represented  the  pioneer  missionary 
who  first  planted  the  cross  at  that  place.  "  Here,"  thought 
I,  "  honor  has  been  done  to  home  worth.  This  is  a  memo- 
rial of  some  spiritual  hero  who  encountered  perils  in  the 
wilderness  in  Brazil's  early  days  ;  and  how  much  better  it 
is  to  honor  such  men  than  to  be  always  painting  saints 
of  the  middle  ages  ! "  I  was  not  a  little  indignant,  there- 
fore, when  I  learned  that  it  was  a  picture  of  some  Euro- 
pean who  had  never  set  foot  in  Brazil.  However,  it  rep- 
resented no  unworthy  man — it  was  St.  Francis. 

The  Bev.  Mr.  Chamberlain  related  to  me  an  anecdote 
of  a  party  of  begging  Indians  who  came  naked  from  their 
haunts  in  the  wilderness  to  see  the  president  of  the  prov- 
ince. The  law-students  gave  them  some  clothes,  which 
they  pat  on  in  an  amusing  style.  Mr.  Chamberlain  with 
some  young  people  visited  the  party  of  Indians  as  they 
were  eating.  One  of  the  Indians,  for  a  bit  of  humor,  yet 
with  serious  face,  got  up  and  approached  him  with  a  long 
knife,  which  he  pretended  to  be  sharpening  on  his  naked 
arm.  Some  of  the  girls  screamed,  and  one  fainted.  Mr. 
Chamberlain  went  toward  the  Indian,  who  did  not  change 
his  countenance.  Mr.  Chamberlain  asked,  in  Portuguese, 
if  they  would  like  to  hear  some  singing.  The  Indian  did 
not  understand  him,  and  called  an  interpreter.  They 
wanted  to  hear  the  singing,  and  several  hymns  were  sung 


\/ 


150     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

in  Portuguese.  The  Indians  all  gathered  round  and  liked 
it,  and  wanted  more  singing.  These  Indians  used  bows 
six  feet  long,  and  arrows  with  poisoned  bone  points. 

During  our  stay  in  Sao  Paulo  we  had  one  or  two  pleas- 
ant horseback  rides.  One  afternoon  we  started  at  4.30 
o'clock  with  some  friends,  passing  through  ravines  and 
over  hills  behind  and  overlooking  the  city,  and  gettiug  as 
far  as  the  Small-pox  Hospital,  then  happily  unoccupied, 
and  from  which  place  we  started  back  at  dusk.  The  same 
evening  we  went  and  took  tea  with  the  Rev.  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Tarboux,  missionaries  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  who  had  recently  come  from  South 
Carolina. 

I  noticed  that,  while  in  Sao  Paulo,  the  temperature  was 
such  that  a  thick  blanket  made  a  necessary  bed-cover  at 
night. 

On  Thursday  morning  at  nine  oclock  we  took  the  cars 
to  visit  Mr.  Yergueiro's  great  coffee-plantation  at  Ibicaba, 
the  principal  to^vns  that  we  passed  on  the  trip  being  Jun- 
diahy,  Campinas,  and  Limera.  The  railway-car  in  which 
we  went  was  comfortable  and  neat.  There  were  eight 
rows  or  sets  of  seats  with  high  backs  covered  with  brown 
Hnen ;  single  seats  on  the  left  side  of  the  passage  and 
double  ones  on  the  right  side.  The  wood-work  was  of 
teak ;  the  windows  could  be  opened  and  shut  easily ;  the 
floor  was  covered  with  oil-cloth.  The  weather  was  misty 
and  rather  cold.  First,  we  passed  through  bottom-land 
with  black  soil,  and  in  twenty  minutes  were  passing  along 
a  narrow  valley  with  hills  forty  feet  high,  bush-covered ; 
some  rocks,  occasional  patches  of  corn  amid  bushes  ;  the 
hills  afterward  increasing  in  height  and  being  frequently 
devoid  of  bushes.  My  pencil-notes  made  at  the  time  read ; 
"  Cayaeira,  9.45  a.  m.     Some  granite,  very  little  surface 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  151 

thus  far  visible  this  side  of  Sao  Paulo  that  can  be  culti- 
vated with  the  plow. — Belim,  10.2.  Much  of  the  bushes 
we  have  passed  look  like  willow.  None  of  the  trees  arc 
large,  and  but  for  the  flowers  on  a  few  of  them  the  vege- 
tation and  surface  would  look  almost  exactly  like  much 
of  the  broken  and  third-rate  land  one  sometimes  traverses 
in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  A  stop  at  this 
station  of  ten  minutes ;  and  lamps  in  the  cars  are  lit,  evi- 
dently preparatory  to  entering  a  tunnel. — YaUinhas,  11.40. 
The  undulations  here  become  more  moderate.  The  soil 
seems  to  improve.  It  is  of  red  color ;  scarcely  any  culti- 
vation, however,  in  sight.  A  few  dwellings  in  the  vicinity. 
A  pack  of  mules,  the  first  of  the  sort  seen  to-day,  at  the 
station,  and  a  few  ox-teams.  A  small  flower-garden  close 
to  the  station.  HaK-way  between  the  last  station  and 
this,  a  large,  high  hill  covered  with  white  rocks  visible  off 
to  the  right. 

"  Campinas,  12.10.  A  mile  or  two  before  reaching  the 
station  a  fine  view  opens  on  the  right  of  a  gently  undulat- 
ing country  five  to  ten  miles  across,  surrounding  the  town, 
amphitheatre-like,  and  apparently  considerably  cultivated. 
— Rebougas,  1  p.  m.  The  country  has  been  moderately  roll- 
ing ;  bushes  and  scattered  timber ;  a  little  com  amid  bush- 
es. Soil  for  the  most  part  ordinary.  Am  reminded,  by  the 
surface  and  vegetation,  of  land  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States,  except  for  occasional  banana-trees.  Here 
is  a  very  small  lumber-yard ;  such  things  very  rare.  A 
small  but  thrifty-looking  field  of  cane. — Santa  Barbara, 
1.20.  Some  signs  of  a  new  settlement.  A  field  of  cane  at 
a  distance,  the  color  of  which  is  like  a  new  field  of  oats. 
Flov/er-garden  at  the  station ;  a  lumber-yard  ;  a  small 
stream  on  the  right ;  meadow  with  horses  and  cattle  feed- 
ing ;   on  gentle,  grass-covered  rise  of  groimd  are  a  few 


152     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

dead  trees,  but  not  large.  At  l.-iO  cross  the  Piraeicaba 
Eiver,  of  dark-drab  color,  and  about  eiglity  feet  wide." 
At  the  station  of  Cordeiro  a  fine  carriage  of  Mr.  Yer- 
gueiro's,  also  a  team  to  take  our  baggage,  were  waiting  us. 
The  weather  was  cool  and  pleasant,  and  the  drive  of  about 
three  miles  to  his  residence  was  agreeable.  From  my  rec- 
ollection, the  situation  of  his  buildings  and  plantation  is  a 
couple  of  hundred  feet  or  so  higher  than  the  line  of  the 
railway,  and  with  surrounding  hills  even  higher ;  and,  as 
the  plantation  has  a  breadth  of  three  or  four  miles,  it  was 
not  long  before  we  were  traveling  over  it.  There  was  soon 
a  striking  improvement  in  the  appearance  of  the  soil  and 
vegetation,  the  latter  increasing  in  size  and  the  fonner 
being  a  pui^ple  clay,  such  as  is  considered  the  very  best 
for  the  production  of  coffee.  As  we  approached  the 
premises  I  could  see  that  the  buildings  were  rather  exten- 
sive, as  indeed  might  be  supposed  on  an  estate  employ- 
ing five  or  six  hundred  slaves.  The  house,  which  is  very- 
substantial,  but  not  showy,  is  two  stories  high,  the  first 
one  being  for  offices,  and  the  second  one  for  living-rooms, 
the  entrance  being  through  a  large  front  yard  containing 
flowers  and  trees.  On  the  right  side  are  additions  for 
storage  and  domestics,  making  a  line  of  a  hundred  yards 
or  so  of  buildings.  Adjoining  on  the  left  is  a  square,  over- 
looked from  the  dwelling,  surrounded  by  the  cabins  of  the 
slaves,  and  in  the  rear  are  the  mills  and  shops,  brick-yard, 
etc.,  for  the  mechanical  work  of  the  plantation.  There  are 
also  a  hospital,  chapel,  with  prominent  tower  and  clock. 
Looking  from  the  front  windows  of  the  house,  there  is  a 
pleasant  view  of  smooth  pasture -ground  sloping  moder- 
ately, with  here  and  there  a  tall,  handsome  tree — survivor 
of  the  virgin  forest — and  resembling  a  big,  spreading- 
topped  American  elm ;  then  there  is  an  ascent  to  high 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  153 

ground,  on  whicli,  about  a  mile  distant,  are  visible  the 
houses  of  Mr.  Yergueiro's  German  colony  and  coffee-fields. 
Looking  to  the  right,  the  view  is  shut  out  by  hills. 

Mr.  Yergueiro  and  his  refined  and  estimable  wife  re- 
ceived us  in  a  cordial  manner  and  made  us  feel  immedi- 
ately at  home.  The  reception-room  was  large,  with  clean- 
scrubbed  floor  and  some  rugs,  a  large,  round  table,  sofa, 
and  easy-chairs.  On  a  small  table  was  a  waiter  with  some 
liquors,  in  case  a  guest  might  wish  such  refreshment.  On 
the  front  walls  were  engraved  portraits  of  Mr.  Yergueiro's 
father  and  mother ;  the  former,  though  a  native  of  Portu- 
gal, having  been  a  senator  and  distinguished  Brazilian 
patriot,  and  for  a  short  time  during  the  era  of  independ- 
ence one  of  the  regents  of  the  empire ;  and  on  account  of 
this  last  circumstance  Mr.  Yergueiro's  neighbors  are  in 
the  habit  of  giving  him  the  title  of  "  duke."  Delicious 
black  coifee  in  small  cups  was  served  shortly  after  our 
arrival,  according  to  the  Brazilian  custom ;  it  was  also 
passed  round  in  the  same  way  shortly  after  dinner,  and 
again  later  in  the  evening.  It  was  also  brought  into  our 
sleeping-rooms  at  the  time  of  getting  up  in  the  morning. 
After  partaking  of  coffee,  and  some  time  spent  in  conver- 
sation, Mr.  Yergueiro  accomp'anied  us  to  see  some  of  the 
premises.  We  first  visited  the  mill,  steam-engine,  water- 
tanks,  and  machinery  for  cleaning  the  coffee ;  also  the 
machinery  for  filling  sacks.  There  was  a  large  stock  of 
superior  coffee  on  hand,  and  the  machinery  and  works 
for  cleaning  and  preparing  it  were  of  a  character  calcu- 
lated to  excite  w^onder  and  admiration.  The  same  engine 
which  runs  the  coffee-machinery  also  furnishes  power  for 
a  saw-  and  planing-mill  and  a  grist-mill.  Mr.  Yergueiro 
had  the  machinery  put  in  motion,  and  had  planed  some 
strong  reddish-colored  timber  called  tiiwa.    A  number  of 


154:       BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

his  slaves  are  skilled  meclianics,  wliom  he  has  instructed. 
There  was  quite  a  lot  of  lumber  on  the  ground ;  a  brick- 
yard near  by,  with  a  big  stock  of  bricks ;  and,  as  Mr.  Yer- 
gueiro  is  his  own  manager,  I  thought  he  must  possess  a 
great  deal  of  business  talent.  He  served  for  some  years, 
in  early  life,  as  an  officer  in  the  German  army,  and  un- 
doubtedly there  gained  many  valuable  habits  of  system 
and  discipline.  We  afterward  visited  the  vegetable  gar- 
den, which  occupied  fully  two  acres,  was  very  well  culti- 
vated, and  had  a  number  of  orange  and  peach  trees,  also  a 
few  magnificent  specimens  of  forest- trees,  among  them  the 
cajaeiro,  with  very  large  spreading  top,  very  small  leaves, 
and  which  bears  an  aromatic  fruit  of  which  a  drink  like 
lemonade  is  made ;  and  the  jpainera^  or  cotton-tree,  seven 
feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  very  tall,  Avith  large  to'p,  long 
green  leaf  something  like  the  willow,  and  which  bears  a 
pink  flower,  but  is  not  valuable  for  timber.  We  next  went 
to  see  the  hospital  and  medical  dispensary,  and  these  I 
thought  Mr.  Yergueiro  took  more  pride  in  showing  than 
anything  else.  The  hospital  apartments  seemed  well 
adapted  for  their  purpose,  and  happily  were  unoccupied ; 
the  room  for  medical  stores  appeared  to  be  well  furnished. 
When  we  got  back  to  the  house,  it  was  about  time  for 
dinner,  which  was  served  at  five  o'clock.  In  a  case  like 
this,  off  in  the  interior  of  Brazil,  it  may  be  expected  that 
I  would  say  a  word  or  two  about  the  table.  It  was  a 
family  dinner,  without  ceremony,  and  there  were  in  all 
nine  at  the  table — Mr.  and  Mrs.  Yergueiro,  an  adopted 
daughter  and  her  two  children,  and  an  Italian  Catholic 
piiest  (who  had  come  from  a  neighboring  town  to  hold 
mass  for  the  slaves),  besides  ourselves.  The  table  was 
long,  and  had  room  for  several  more  guests,  for  Mr.  Yer- 
gueiro is  in  the  habit  of  entertaining  visitors.     This  gen- 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATIOlir.  155 

tleman  sat  at  tlie  head  and  did  the  carving.  Among  the 
dishes  was  a  good  piece  of  roast  beef  and  an  uncommonly 
nice  boiled  leg  of  mutton.  Among  the  vegetables  were 
rice,  sweet  potatoes,  and  spinach,  mashed  in  the  Euro- 
pean style,  and  which  I  noticed  was  eaten  mixed  with  dry 
mandioca-meal  as  a  favorite  dish.  There  were  red  and 
sherry  wines.  The  sweet  dishes  and  dessert  showed  skill- 
ful cooking.  There  were  two  or  three  well-trained  black 
waiters  dressed  in  full  fashion,  with  black,  swallow-tailed 
coats  and  white  cravats.  At  dessert  Mr.  Yergueiro  had 
his  grandchildren  sit  by  him,  and  I  think  his  two  big 
greyhounds,  which  seem  to  accompany  his  every  step, 
also  came  in  for  a  bite.  About  eight  or  nine  o'clock  in 
the  evening  we  went  to  the  dining-room  again  for  tea  and 
supper.  Stairs  led  down,  without  a  door,  from  the  parlor 
to  an  entry-way  in  the  basement ;  and  we  had  not  sat  very 
long  after  dinner  before  we  were  surprised  by  the  sound 
of  the  music  of  a  full  brass  band  in  that  direction.  Like 
many  planters,  Mr.  Yergueiro  has  organized  among  his 
slaves  such  a  band  of  music,  which,  of  course,  contributes 
much  to  the  general  diversion  and  spirit.  The  band, 
however,  was  to  do  special  services  that  evening ;  for 
the  slaves  were  to  celebrate  a  religious  festival  by  a  torch- 
light procession.  During  the  evening  we  witnessed  the 
procession  from  the  open  windows  of  the  house.  There 
were  torches  in  abundance,  and  banners,  and  crucifixes, 
sky-rockets,  Roman  candles,  cannon-firing,  and  music  by 
the  band ;  and,  amid  all,  a  mournful  murmm*  of  chants 
and  prayers.  Women  carried  their  babies  in  their  arms, 
and  children  were  tagging  by  their  side.  A  sort  of  weird 
spectacle  these  hundreds  of  slaves  made  as  seen  in  occa- 
sional flashes  of  artificial  light.  There  was  no  mirth.  I 
could  not  perceive  a  single  indication  of  cheerfulness. 


156     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Everything  seemed  of  an  opposite  character.  The  air 
was  cold,  almost  frosty,  and  when  at  length  the  procession 
returned  and  marched  into  the  yard  of  the  slave-quarters, 
little  fires  were  kindled  in  different  spots  for  warmth. 
As  I  was  looking  out  of  a  window  on  the  scene  and  heard 
the  gate  shut,  and  a  heavy  bolt  turned  after  the  procession 
had  all  got  in,  the  thought  struck  me,  rather  sadly,  that 
these  people  were  like  prisoners. 

The  next  day,  though  Friday,  was  kept  as  Sunday. 
By  mutual  understanding  the  large  slaveholding  plant- 
ers observe  a  day  for  Sunday,  each  different  from  the 
others,  so  that  the  slaves  of  different  plantations  shall  not 
have  an  opportunity  of  mingling  together  in  a  sort  of 
mass-meeting.  Friday  was,  therefore,  kept  as  Sunday  at 
Ibicaba.  As  soon  as  we  were  dressed  in  the  morning  we 
were  informed  that  mass  was  about  to  be  celebrated  in  the 
chapel,  and  thither  we  went.  A  fair  congregation  was 
present,  consisting  mostly  of  slave-women,  who  were  on 
their  knees  on  the  tiled  floor.  The  priest  celebrated  mass 
in  quick  time,  occupying  perhaps  twenty  minutes  in  all, 
and  was  assisted  by  rather  a  handsome  young  mulatto 
belonging  to  the  plantation.  The  slave-women  kept  up 
a  plaintive  chanting  or  praying  a  part  of  the  time,  and 
there  seemed  to  be  a  sad  look  on  every  face.  After  this 
service  Mr.  Yergueiro  took  us  to  see  his  artificial  lake  or 
mill  and  fish  pond,  some  hundred  yards  in  the  rear  of  the 
buildings,  going  through  the  garden,  and  where  was  a  con- 
venient bath-house ;  and  when  we  got  back  it  was  about 
breakfast-time.  Speaking  of  the  big  greyliounds  which 
always  kept  close  to  Mr.  Yergueiro,  and  which  were  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  I  ever  saw,  the  governess  told 
us  that  once  on  taking  a  walk  she  had  found  these  dogs 
the  most  perfect  of  protectors. 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION-.  16Y 

After  breakfast  the  priest  had  his  mule  saddled  and 
rode  away  in  citizen's  clothes,  which  I  noticed  he  wore  ex- 
cept when  officiating  in  the  chapel.  In  the  course  of  the 
forenoon  my  family  and  I  had  Mrs.  Yergueiro's  company 
in  a  visit  to  the  dwellings  of  the  German  colony,  about  a 
mile  distant.  We  went  into  several  of  the  cottages,  which 
were  substantial  and  comfortable,  saving  that  the  floors 
were  bare  earth.  Each  family  had  its  patch  of  garden, 
out  -  building  for  cattle,  pigs,  and  fowls,  and  appeared 
contented.  In  the  house  of  the  director,  who  also  is  a 
German,  was  an  apartment  furnished  for  a  school.  vThe 
colonists  are  simply  tenants,  receiving  pay  in  money  for 
the  coffee  they  produce,  cultivating  it  according  to  instruc- 
tions, and  receive  rent  of  house  and  land  enough  for  their 
own  produce  free.  Later  in  the  day  we  went  out  to  look 
at  the  coffee-trees  laden  with  ripe  and  green  berries.  They 
were  of  most  thrifty  appearance,  and  the  soil,  a  purple- 
red  clay  with  a  very  little  sand,  was  free  from  weeds  and 
grass.  We  were  told  that  this  very  soil  bore  cane  forty 
years  ago,  and  had  been  continuously  in  crop  ever  since 
without  manuring.     It  has  a  depth  of  many  feet. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Chamberlain  arrived  from  Sao  Paulo 
before  dinner,  and  was  received  by  Mr.  Yergueiro  as  an 
old  friend.  He  suggested  giving  a  talk  to  the  black  peo- 
ple in  the  evening,  as  he  had  done  on  some  former  occa- 
sion, but  Mr.  Yergueiro  did  not  appear  to  favor  the  idea 
— ^possibly  because  it  might  seem  a  little  inconsistent  to 
have  Catholic  service  in  the  morning  and  Protestant  serv- 
ice in  the  evening ;  possibly,  it  might  have  been  in  defer- 
ence to  the  feelings  of  his  wife,  who  is  undoubtedly  a 
devout  CathoHc.  Mr.  Yergueiro  and  Mr.  Chamberlain 
passed  the  evening  in  an  animated  and  friendly  conversa- 
tion on  religious  and  other  questions,  and  the  rest  of  us 
U 


158      BRAZIL-   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

around  the  center-table  cliatted  and  looked  at  engrav- 
ings. 

The  next  morning  I  took  a  look  at  some  of  the  dairy- 
stock.  The  cows  were  the  native  Brazilian  breed  called 
caracu,  or  thick-necked.  They  have  very  large  horns,  and 
give  twelve  quarts  of  milk  a  day.  The  stock,  however, 
is  used  more  for  beef  than  the  dairy.  After  breakfast  the 
time  came  for  us  to  say  good-by.  Our  visit  had  been 
pleasant  and  interesting,  and  we  took  leave  of  our  friends 
with  expressions  of  sincere  thanks  for  their  amiable  hos- 
pitality. A  team  of  Mr.  Yergueiro's  took  us  to  Eio  Claro, 
a  town  of  about  six  thousand  inhabitants.  The  planters 
in  the  adjacent  country  are  generally  in  unembarrassed 
circumstances.  On  our  way  we  noticed  in  a  piece  of  woods 
near  the  road  a  temporary  rustic  altar  where  the  Ibicaba 
slaves  had  held  rehgious  services  of  their  own  the  previ- 
ous day. 

Afterward,  a  good  deal  of  the  land  we  passed  over  was 
mere  pasture  embossed  with  ant-liills,  and  as  we  came  near 
the  town  of  Rio  Claro  the  soil  became  quite  sandy.  At 
the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  in  his  company, 
we,  at  Rio  Claro,  called  upon  and  accepted  an  invitation 
to  lunch  with  the  family  of  an  American  missionary,  Mr. 
de  Gamma,  consisting  besides  himself  of  a  wife  and  grown 
daughters.  Mr.  de  Gamma,  though  a  native  of  Portugal 
or  the  Azores,  has  lived  many  years  in  the  State  of  Illi- 
nois, and  seems  much  attached  to  the  United  States.  He 
owns  about  a  dozen  acres  of  land,  on  which  his  house 
stands,  well  situated  at  the  edge  of  the  town,  and  on  which 
he  is  having  success  in  raising  grapes,  for  which  the  soil 
and  climate  of  the  locality  seem  well  adapted,  the  tem- 
perature being  warmer  than  at  Sao  Paulo.  Around  the 
house  were  plants  and  flowers.    He  has  a  successful  school, 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  159 

also  a  liome  for  poor  boys,  and  appeared  to  me  to  be  ac- 
complishing useful  work. 

In  several  places  in  the  streets  of  this  town,  some  piles 
of  logs  and  tar-barrels  had  been  got  in  readiness  for  bon- 
fires the  ensuing  night,  in  celebration  of  the  festival  of 
Santa  Cruz. 

Leaving  Kio  Claro  by  railway,  we  got  back  to  the  sta- 
tion of  Santa  Barbara  before  sundown,  This  is  the  station 
where  one  stops  who  wishes  to  visit  the  American  col- 
ony— the  settlement  of  farmers  who  emigrated  to  Brazil 
from  the  Southern  States  of  the  United  States  soon  after 
the  civil  war.  They  live  on  a  tract  of  moderate  but  not 
first-rate  fertility,  surrounding  the  village  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara, about  ten  miles  south  from  the  station.  We  hoped, 
after  visiting  that  settlement,  to  be  able  to  go  on  horse- 
back across  the  country  to  Piracicaba.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  Mr.  Chamberlain,  I  hired  of  a  neighboring  German 
planter  a  buckboard  wagon— a  long,  rather  low  veliicle, 
with  light  board  bottom,  uninclosed  at  the  sides  and  ends, 
and  two  seats  without  springs,  with  two  mules  driven  by 
an  African  driver.  It  was  the  best  conveyance  to  be  had  ; 
and  in  it,  or  on  it,  we  started  for  the  residence  of  Mrs. 
Ellis,  some  four  or  five  miles  distant.  There  were  sev- 
eral Americans  about  the  railway-station,  the  most  of  them 
being  young  men  who  appeared  to  have  come  for  mail- 
matter  ;  and  as  they,  returning  home,  galloped  or  trotted 
by  us  on  good  animals,  soon  after  we  had  started,  we  could 
almost  fancy  we  were  somewhere  in  the  United  States. 
There  was  quite  a  hill  to  go  up  soon  after  we  had  got 
under  way.  The  whole  of  the  country  seemed  poor  and 
desolate.  We  did  not  pass  a  dwelling,  nor  any  cultivated 
land,  the  entire  way  to  Mrs.  Ellis's.  The  surface  is  undu- 
lating, studded  with  clumps  of  bushes,  here  and  there  some 


160    BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AN^  PROSPECTS. 

trees,  and  occasionally  a  partly  burned  tnmk  of  a  fallen 
tree  ;  the  soil,  reddish-colored  with  a  large  proportion  of 
sand ;  the  road  natural,  much  worn,  and  with  numerous 
tracks.  In  places  the  ruts  were  so  worn  dov\^n  that  the 
bottom  of  our  buckboard  would  scrape  the  middle  of  the 
road. 

The  house  of  Mrs.  Ellis  and  her  sister,  Miss  Strong, 
is  situated  about  half  a  mile  off  the  main  road,  and  we 
arri\^ed  there  at  dusk,  meeting  a  kind  welcome.  The 
next  day  we  drove  in  the  buckboard  (I  have  read  in  a 
Brazilian  newspaper  that  the  Princess  Imperial  of  Brazil, 
in  her  recent  tour  in  the  southern  provinces,  rode  in  such 
a  conveyance)  eight  miles  to  the  "  Campos "  church, 
though  the  weather  was  very  hot,  and  attended  services 
and  preaching  by  Mr.  Chamberlain.  The  meeting-house 
is  a  plain  yet  comfortable  wooden  building,  where  the 
American  settlers  assist  in  maintaining  a  union  church, 
services  being  held  alternate  Sundays  by  Baptist,  Meth- 
odist, and  Presbyterian  clergymen.  There  was  a  good 
attendance  of  respectable  and  intelligent-appearing  Amer- 
icans, whose  manners  were  uniformly  friendly.  Several 
invited  us  to  go  home  with  them  to  dinner ;  but  as  we 
could  only  accept  one  invitation,  we  went  to  the  family 
where  Mrs.  Ellis  was  going  to  dine,  which  proved  to  be 
that  of  an  American,  who  has  a  thousand  acres,  a  pleasant 
home,  and  apparently  a  good  farm.  I  noticed  in  his 
house  a  big,  old-fashioned  open  fireplace.  The  frame  of 
a  new  house  was  up.  There  was  a  good  brook  running 
through  his  farm,  and  he  had  ten  or  a  dozen  fat  hogs, 
which  had  the  benefit  of  the  stream.  The  dinner  was 
such  as  one  could  expect  at  the  house  of  an  American 
country  gentleman.  There  was  no  attempt  at  style,  but 
the  fare  was  generous,  and  there  was  an  air  of  quiet  and 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  161 

dignity.  A  full  decanter  of  good  sherry  wine  was  on  the 
table.  All  the  farm-houses  that  we  saw  during  the  day 
were  very  plain  outwardly  and  in  their  surroundings. 

It  was  again  dusk  when  we  got  back  to  Mrs.  Ellis's ; 
and  the  temperature  was  so  cool  after  dark  that  a  fire 
kindled  in  the  open  fireplace  was  very  agreeable.  The 
month  of  May,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  the  beginning 
of  Brazilian  winter,  and  the  elevation  where  we  were  is 
two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

Mrs.  Ellis  is  a  widow,  with  children  grown  up  and 
married,  and  she  and  her  maiden  sister.  Miss  Strong,  who 
live  together,  are  large,  fleshy,  and  whole-souled  women 
from  Georgia ;  but  a  part  of  their  life  since  they  came  to 
Brazil  has  been  tinged  with  sadness.  Miss  Strong  first 
came  with  her  father  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago ;  they 
traveled  a  good  deal  through  Brazil,  searching  for  an 
eligible  site  for  a  farm,  during  which  time  they  were  most 
kindly  and  hospitably  received  by  Brazihans.  Finally,  Mr. 
Strong  selected  this  place,  of  two  or  three  hundred  acres, 
principally  because  he  could  get  a  clear  title,  for  about 
everywhere  else  he  had  found  some  difficulty  or  question 
in  regard  to  title.  He  was  an  enterprising,  methodical, 
and  thoughtful  man,  and  devoted  a  great  deal  of  labor  to 
clearing  off  the  woods  from  a  part  of  the  farm  and  bring- 
ing it  into  a  state  of  cultivation.  He  planted  a  peach- 
orchard  on  a  rise  of  ground  in  front  of  the  dwelling,  and, 
when  all  the  other  improvements  were  done,  he  built  a 
house  in  the  old  Georgia  style,  with  a  wide  veranda  in 
front,  which  is  entirely  covered  by  the  projecting  roof. 
He  lived  to  see  his  peach-trees  blossom  and  bear  fniit, 
but  finally,  owing  to  the  moisture  of  the  ground  or  some 
other  cause,  they  began  to  die.  And  it  was  not  long  after 
he  had  got  his  house  finished  till  he  himseK  fell  a  victim 


162    BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

to  fatal  illness,  leaving  his  affectionate  daughters  most 
deeply  to  deplore  his  loss.  Partly  for  recreation  and 
partly  to  do  good,  Mrs.  Ellis  has  for  several  years  taught 
a  small  school  in  a  little  building  set  apart  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  road  from 
the  house.  Several  of  the  pupils  live  in  the  family,  as  it 
would  be  too  far  for  them  to  go  daily  to  their  homes. 
That  Sunday  evening  two  pretty  little  American  girls 
under  twelve  years  of  age  had  been  brought  and  left  at 
the  house  by  their  father,  who  lived  seven  or  eight  miles 
distant,  in  order  that  they  could  attend  the  school.  He 
said  they  had  never  stayed  away  from  home  before,  and  it 
was  a  hard  trial  for  him  to  be  separated  from  them  ;  but 
there  was  no  nearer  school  to  which  they  could  go.  There 
was  an  organ  in  the  same  room  as  the  fireplace,  and  dur- 
ing the  evening  some  familiar  tunes  were  sung  in  which 
the  children  joined.  With  reference  to  the  American 
colony,  I  might  here  say  that  while  a  majority  are  making 
a  good  living,  there  is  not  a  likelihood  that  it  will  grow 
by  American  immigration. 

Learning  that  a  bridge  was  down  on  the  road  to  Pira- 
cicaba,  it  seemed  to  be  doubtful  whether  the  trip  could  be 
safely  made  on  horseback ;  so  the  next  morning  we  again 
took  the  railway  at  Santa  Barbara  station  for  Campinas. 
From  here  I  had  thought  of  continuing  the  journey  on 
another  line  to  Casa  Branca,  nearly  a  day's  journey,  but, 
owing  to  the  excessive  dust,  the  ladies  outvoted  me,  and 
we  went  straight  to  the  principal  hotel  of  Campinas.  We 
were  some  minutes  driving  there.  The  hotel  was  only 
one  story  high,  the  entrance  looked  dirty,  and  the  apart- 
ments assigned  for  us  showed  a  decided  lack  of  soap  and 
water,  and  the  need  of  some  fresh  coats  of  paint.  The 
beds  were  devoid  of  linen,  which,  it  seems,  is  not  put  on 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  163 

at  some  hotels  till  the  rooms  ai'e  let.  Everything  looked 
disagreeable.  The  rooms  were  almost  overlooked  from 
the  street.  There  were  no  window-shades;  but  there 
were  wooden  shutters,  which,  when  closed,  left  the  room 
nearly  dark.  I  apprehended  that  breakfast  would  be  in 
keeping  with  the  rooms.  But  on  going  into  the  eating- 
room  everything  seemed  changed.  We  got  a  good  beef- 
steak, with  fried  potatoes,  good  rolls,  and  tea,  all  served  in 
a  satisfactory  manner.  We  had  scarcely  finished  break- 
fast, when  the  Eev.  Mr.  Lane,  chief  of  the  American  Pres- 
byterian mission  and  college  at  Campinas,  accompanied  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Chamberlain,  came  in  a  carriage  to  take  us  to 
the  college,  and  be  its  guests  during  our  stay  in  the  city. 
We  could  not  very  well  decline  so  kind  an  invitation, 
and  therefore  went.  The  college  is  a  two-story  red-brick 
building,  with  porch  and  steps  at  the  front  entrance,  situ- 
ated on  gently  rising  ground  at  the  outskirts  of  the  town, 
and  has  about  forty  acres  of  good  land  belonging  to  and 
surrounding  it.  It  is  a  good  boarding-school  for  boys  who 
Avish  to  pay,  and  a  manual-labor  school  for  some  who  do 
not  pay.  A  matron  and  some  of  the  teachers  live  in  the 
building,  and  there  are  guest-rooms  in  the  lower  story. 
Tiie  grounds  are  amply  supplied  with  water,  even  to  the 
extent  of  a  swimming-tank.  A  young  ladies'  school  is 
kept  at  the  residence  of  Mr.  Lane,  some  hundred  yards 
distant,  under  the  direction  of  Mrs.  Lane,  a  Virginia  lady, 
with  whom  we  had  the  pleasure,  in  the  evening,  of  taking 
tea.  Mr.  Lane  is  a  native  of  the  British  Islands,  and  a 
man  of  superior  organizing  talent,  as  well  as  an  able 
preacher.  The  college  grounds,  which  he  selected,  will,  in 
time,  as  the  city  grows,  prove  a  very  valuable  endowment. 
In  another  part  of  the  town  he  has  presented  to  the 
municipality  a  piece  of  ground  for  a  park.     In  the  course 


164     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PEOSPECTS. 

of  the  day,  in  company  with  Mr.  Chamberlain,  we  visited 
the  new  Catholic  church  edifice  in  Campinas,  which  was 
in  course  of  erection  many  years,  and  was  finally  dedi- 
cated, with  great  ceremonies,  a  year  or  two  ago.  It  is  a 
very  large  structure ;  handsome  outside,  and  very  hand- 
some inside,  the  finish  being  in  Brazil-wood,  in  natural 
dark-red  color,  in  happy  contrast  to  the  white  and  gilded 
style  that  is  so  common.  We  went  to  the  top  of  the 
tower,  which  is  very  high,  and  affords  a  splendid  view  of 
the  surrounding  country.  The  architect  occupied  ofiices 
on  the  ground-floor. 

The  same  afternoon,  in  company  with  Messrs.  Lane 
and  Chamberlain,  we  visited  a  neighboring  coffee-planta- 
tion, the  proprietor  of  which  being  absent,  we  were  kindly 
shown  through  the  house  and  grounds  by  his  wife,  ac- 
companied by  their  two  grown  daughters.  The  lady  was 
a  stout,  bright,  yet  amiable  person,  evidently  competent 
to  rule  a  large  household.  The  department  of  the  in-door 
female  slaves  presented  novel  scenes.  Here  was  a  nursery 
of  negro  babies,  tended  by  their  mothers :  some  were  in 
cradles ;  and  there  was  one,  sick  with  the  measles,  that  was 
being  rocked  by  a  little  negro  boy.  The  lady  said  she 
had  to  watch  the  mothers,  to  see  that  they  sufficiently  fed 
their  children.  In  the  kitchen,  among  other  cooking, 
some  not  very  ripe  pumj^kins  were  being  cut  and  put  into 
a  large  boiler,  to  be  cooked  for  food  for  the  work-people. 
It  reminded  me  of  what  I  had  seen  done  for  cattle.  In  a 
corner  of  the  large  dining-room  was  a  loom  for  hand- 
weaving  ;  and  in  the  same  room,  slave-women  were  clean- 
ing coffee  by  hand,  shaking  it  up  in  large,  shallow  sieve- 
baskets,  occasionally  giving  it  a  dexterous  toss  in  the  air, 
and  letting  it  fall  again  into  the  basket,  without  wasting  a 
kernel.     I  was  particularly  struck  by  the  good  and  tidy 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION".  165 

woolen  skirts  of  the  slave-women's  dresses.  We  took  a 
look  at  a  coffee-orcliard  near  the  house,  also  went  through 
grounds  devoted  to  fruit,  and  while  in  the  latter,  coifee, 
in  small  cups,  was  brought  out  to  us.  There  was  a  piano 
in  the  parlor,  on  which  the  daughters  are  accustomed  to 
play.  The  house  was  of  good  size,  and  substantially  built 
in  old-fashioned  style,  with  thick  walls,  whitewashed  out- 
side. There  were  several  steps  descending  very  gradu- 
ally from  the  front  door,  and  below  them  a  smooth,  hard 
piece  of  ground,  clean  swept,  for  drying  coffee.  The  pre- 
vailing air  about  the  premises  was  business,  as  an  example 
of  which,  the  fowl-yard  on  one  side  of  the  house  came 
up  to  the  veranda.  Messrs.  Lane  and  Chamberlain  were 
acquainted  with  the  family,  and  I  presume  it  was  owing 
to  this  acquaintance  that  the  latter,  while  we  were  aU  in 
the  parlor  together,  got  into  a  discussion  with  the  lady  of 
the  house,  who  was  a  Cathohc,  on  some  doctrinal  ques- 
tion. They  conducted  the  discussion  in  an  animated  but 
very  good-natured  manner,  and  I  thought  the  lady,  who 
sat  a  part  of  the  time  in  a  hammock,  maintained  her  side 
with  ability.  Mr.  Chamberlain,  who  is  a  good  singer, 
wound  up  by  singing  some  verses  of  a  Portuguese  hymn. 
The  next  morning  we  were  up  and  had  our  coffee  at 
the  college  before  daylight,  took  the  train  for  Jundiahy, 
where  we  arrived  in  two  hours,  and  were  entertained  at 
breakfast  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hammond  at  their  pleasant 
home.  About  11  a.  m.  we  started  by  railway  for  Piraci- 
caba,  on  the  Itu  line,  which  at  first  descends  along  a  branch 
of  the  Tiete  River.  In  about  half  an  hour  we  passed  the 
Italian  colony  of  Montesserate,  whose  houses  are  close  to- 
gether fronting  the  road.     The  president  of  the  railway 

company.  Baron  ,  who  with  his  family  was  going 

to  his  plantation  at  Itu,  noticing  that  I  was  observing  the 


166     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

soil,  which  was  of  a  dark  color,  informed  me  that  the  soil 
in  that  neighborhood  was  called  massapS,  and  that  it  was 
good  for  growing  coffee,  cotton,  and  cane.  With  this 
family  we  interchanged  some  sociability.  By  the  baron's 
direction,  his  handsome  little  boy  came  with  captivating 
modesty  and  gave  the  youngest  of  our  party  some  fmit. 
During  this  journey  of  over  four  hours  by  rail  we  trav- 
ersed a  country  that  has  long  been  settled  and  which 
contains  several  old  towns  and  villages — a  country  with 
alternately  good  and  poor  soil,  with  here  and  there  bright 
fields  of  cane  and  coffee  and  of  ripe  com,  and  which  also 
afforded  in  passing  a  few  really  splendid  views  of  dis- 
tant highlands,  of  vast  prairies  and  majestic  forests.  We 
reached  Piracicaba  at  3.45.  Before  getting  to  the  station 
the  railway  winds  along  the  upper  edge  of  a  sort  of  amphi- 
theatre, affording  a  view  of  the  city  lying  farther  down 
toward  the  river.  We  had  accepted  an  invitation  to  stop 
while  in  this  city  at  the  Collegio  Piracicabano,  an  Ameri- 
can boarding  and  day  school  founded  by  the  Methodist 
Episcoj)al  Church,  South,  and  under  the  charge  of  Miss 
Martha  Watts,  of  Kentucky.  Before  the  cars  stopped  we 
were  able  to  distinguish  this  building,  a  two-story  red- 
brick edifice,  by  seeing  the  American  and  Brazilian  flags 
displayed  from  its  cupola.  It  was  a  sunshiny,  pleasant 
afternoon.  Rev.  Mr.  Koger  was  at  the  station  with  a  car- 
riage to  meet  us,  and  we  were  soon  on  our  way  to  the  col- 
lege. On  arriving  there.  Miss  Watts  had  her  school  of 
young  misses,  mostly  Brazilians,  paraded  in  two  lines  in 
the  front  yard  and  on  the  steps,  and  as  we  passed  up  be- 
tween tliem  they  shook  hands  with  each  of  us  and  pre- 
sented flowers.  When  we  had  got  into  the  entry,  Miss 
Watts  introduced  Miss  Maria  Escoba,  a  handsome  Brazil- 
ian miss  of  about  eighteen  years,  who,  she  said,  had  a  few 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION.  167 

words  to  say  to  us.  The  young  lady  then  read  a  short 
address  of  welcome  in  Portuguese,  and  in  reply  I  said  we 
appreciated  the  honor  they  v/ere  doing  us,  and  that  we 
would  accept  it  as  a  compliment  to  the  United  States. 
After  this  the  scholars  gave  nine  hurrahs.  "We  could  not 
have  had  a  more  cordial  reception.  Our  apartments  in 
the  building  were  home-like  and  comfortable,  and  we  were 
well  satisfied  with  our  treatment.  The  rooms  of  the 
building  are  spacious,  and  seem  well  designed  for  such 
an  institution.  The  situation  is  in  a  good  part  of  the 
to^vn,  and  the  grounds,  containing  a  vegetable-garden, 
lawn,  orange  and  other  trees,  are  ample.  After  dinner 
we  went  to  the  top  of  the  building,  and  from  the  cupola 
had  a  fine  view  of  the  city  and  surrounding  country. 

That  evening  a  Brazilian  brass  band,  several  of  whose 
members  were  mulattoes,  came  and  gave  a  serenade,  and 
Miss  Watts  invited  them  into  the  college  and  gave  them 
a  collation. 

"Wednesday,  May  14th,  weather  being  pleasant,  I  took 
a  walk  in  the  morning  through  the  town.  The  main 
street  is  of  good  width,  with  fairly  wide  and  stone-paved 
sidewalks.  Some  of  the  shops  were  of  good  size  and  well 
stocked.  The  most  disagreeable  thing  that  impressed  me 
was  the  exposed  position  of  the  city  prison.  It  is  in  a 
basement-room,  and  through  the  heavily  grated  windows 
the  prisoners  could  be  seen  from  the  street,  there  being 
no  inclosure  around  the  building. 

I  might  here  say  that  the  name  of  the  city  of  Piraci- 
caba  is  composed  of  two  Guarany-Indian  words,  j^ira^ 
fish,  and  cycaba,  end,  meaning  the  place  w^here  the  fish 
stop  in  their  passage  up  the  river  on  account  of  the  falls. 
The  locality  has  long  been  celebrated  for  good  fish  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year.     Piracicaba  was  settled  a  hun- 


168     BRAZIL:   ITS  COITDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

dred  years  ago,  and  has  risen  by  regular  promotion,  hav- 
ing been  created  a  separate  parish  in  1810,  a  town  in 
1821,  and  a  city  in  1856.  Its  fine  bridge  of  about  six 
hundred  feet  in  length,  just  above  the  falls,  was  made  by 
the  province  at  the  moderate  expense  of  forty  thousand 
dollars.  The  streets  of  the  city  are  all  at  right  angles 
and  wide,  and,  owing  to  its  splendid  water-power,  its  ex- 
cellent situation  on  high,  rolling  land,  and  very  extensive 
surroundings  of  fertile  country,  it  seems  destined  to  have 
considerable  growth.  It  was  visited  by  the  Princess  Im- 
perial and  her  husband  in  November,  1884. 

We  breakfasted  at  8.30.  In  the  forenoon  we  listened 
to  some  of  the  recitations  in  the  school.  I  was  pleased 
with  Miss  Watts's  system. 

About  1  p.  M.  we  rode  out  on  horseback,  three  miles 
or  so,  taking  the  road  through  some  woods  toward  Santa 
Barbara.  In  the  afternoon  we  visited  the  cotton-mill  of 
Mr.  Luiz  Quiroz,  a  Portuguese,  who  showed  us  through  it. 
We  there  saw  a  new  embroidery-machine  doing  the  work 
which  a  hundred  operatives  would  do  by  hand.  The  pro- 
prietor has  a  handsome  new  villa  not  far  from  the  river, 
and  from  which  there  is  a  splendid  view  of  the  falls  and 
rapids.  We  then  drove  over  the  new  bridge  and  down  a 
piece  on  the  opposite  bank ;  then  got  out  and  walked  down 
close  to  the  river,  on  a  terrace  from  which  the  view  of 
the  falls  is  fine.  The  falls  are  about  forty  feet  high,  but 
not  exactly  abrupt.  It  was  nearly  dusk  when  we  got 
back  to  the  carriage.  I  should  say  the  Piracicaba  River 
is  larger  there  than  the  Merrimac  at  Lowell.  The  best 
fish  of  the  river,  and  a  kind  which  is  abundant,  is  the 
dourado.  As  many  as  five  hundred  and  seventy-eight 
of  tliese  fish,  some  weighing  five  pounds  each,  were  caught 
in  a  net  there  one  afternoon  in  the  month  of  February. 


VISIT  TO  A  COFFEE-PLANTATION".  169 

Mr.  Koger  told  me  tliat  they  are  as  good  as  our  American 
shad. 

On  Thursday  afternoon,  in  company  with  Miss  Watts, 
her  assistants,  and  several  of  her  pupils,  and  Mr.  Koger, 
we  took  an  excursion  down  the  river  in  large  and  long 
canoes  dug  out  from  trees.  I  felt  a  little  timid;  but 
the  boatmen  were  experienced  river-men,  and  we  made  a 
pleasant  trip  down  to  and  even  into  some  rapids,  return- 
ing safely  by  dusk.  The  river  was  broad,  and  its  banks 
moderately  high  and  covered  with  bushes  and  trees,  on 
which  were  many  hanging  vines  and  some  parasites  with 
bright  flowers.  The  chief  boatman  told  us  the  names  of 
several  of  the  trees,  explaining  which  were  good  for  tim- 
ber and  which  for  fuel  only. 

That  evening  we  attended  public  worship  and  preach- 
ing in  Portuguese  by  Mr.  Koger.  (The  Eev.  James  W. 
Koger,  superintendent  of  the  mission  in  Brazil  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  an  excellent  and 
amiable  man,  preached  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  January  17, 
1886,  returning  the  19th  to  Sao  Paulo,  where,  after  nine 
days'  illness  of  yellow  fever,  he  died,  deeply  regretted, 
leaving  a  widow  and  four  children.)  The  next  morning 
we  took  leave  of  Miss  "Watts  and  all  at  the  college,  feeling 
much  gratified  with  all  we  had  seen  at  the  institution,  and 
with  the  kind  entertainment  we  had  received.  We  took 
the  train  for  Sao  Paulo  at  8.15,  where  we  arrived  in  the 
afternoon.  On  Sunday  we  heard  Mr.  Tarboux  preach  an 
earnest  sermon  in  Portuguese,  reading  it  from  manuscript, 
and  it  seemed  to  me  he  had  made  great  progress,  consid- 
ering that  it  was  only  about  a  year  since  he  came  to  Bra- 
zil from  the  United  States.  A  young  American  acted  as 
organist.     The  audience  comprised  about  twenty  persons. 

Monday,  May  19th,  we  arose  at  4.15,  took  coffee  be- 
15 


170     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

fore  5,  left  the  hotel  in  a  carriage  at  5.30,  and  started  on 
the  train  for  Eio  at  6.  The  trip  occnpied  the  day — say 
twelve  hours,  the  train  going  at  moderate  speed,  and  stop- 
ping at  stations  about  every  ten  miles.  The  fare  for  three 
of  ns  was  ninety  milreis,  and  ten  milreis  more  for  a  trunk, 
making  in  all  about  forty  dollars.  Considerable  of  the 
way  was  down  the  valley  of  the  Parahyba,  which  varies 
from  two  to  twelve  miles  or  more  in  width,  is  of  medium 
fertility,  has  long  been  settled,  contains  many  plantations 
and  populous  villages,  and  is  inclosed  on  each  side  by  for- 
est-covered mountains  on  whose  sides,  however,  are  occar 
sionally  to  be  seen  coffee-plantations.  The  river,  which 
is  dark-colored,  is  generally  broad  and  shallow,  but  here 
and  there  is  shut  in  narrow  banks  with  rapids.  The 
scenery  is  frequently  picturesque.  We  reached  Eio  at 
7.10  p.  M.  in  the  midst  of  a  very  heavy  fall  of  rain,  and 
before  eight  o'clock  were  safely  at  our  residence. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

PUBLIC   INSTRTICTION. 

While  tlie  Pedagogical  Exhibition  held  at  Eio  in 
1883  was  a  success,  the  friends  of  education  very  much 
regretted  that  a  congress  of  teachers  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  could  not  have  been  held  at  the  same  time.  The 
plan  which  the  Government  proposed  for  the  congress 
was  that,  in  each  province,  the  Inspector-General  of  In- 
struction should  assemble  all  the  male  teachers  of  that 
province,  who  should  select  three  of  their  number  to 
attend  the  congress,  the  inspector  himseK  to  select  three 
female  teachers  to  attend,  making  six  teachers  from  each 
province,  or,  for  the  twenty  provinces  and  the  capital, 
one  hundred  and  twenty-six  members.  The  necessary 
expenses  were  to  have  been  paid  by  the  central  Govern- 
ment, and  the  estimate  to  cover  the  expense  of  the  con- 
gress was  thirty  coiitos,  or  twelve  thousand  dollars. 
The  national  legislature,  however,  declined  to  vote  the 
money,  and  so  the  congress  was  not  held.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  Government  appointed  a  commission, 
or  congress,  of  distinguished  educators,  who  served  gi\a- 
tuitously  and  furnished  some  able  papers  on  educational 
subjects.  It  is  now  the  wish  of  the  Government  soon  to 
hold  an  international  congress  of  teachers  of  American 
countries. 


172     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

The  Pedagogical  Exhibition  was  under  the  presidency 
of  his  Royal  Highness  Count  d'Eu,  husband  of  the  Prin- 
cess Imperial,  and  was  opened  in  presence  of  the  Empe- 
ror and  Empress,  and  a  numerous  public,  in  the  city  of 
Kio  de  Janeiro,  Sunday,  July  29th.  It  remained  open 
for  the  free  admission  of  visitors  for  several  weeks,  and 
was  visited  by  many  thousand  people,  and,  in  this  way,  was 
itself  an  educator  of  taste  and  ideas  of  very  great  value. 
Several  foreign  countries  were  represented  in  the  exhibi- 
tion; but  the  United  States,  for  some  reason,  was  very 
scantily  represented.  Belgium  took  the  lead  in  the  ex- 
hibit of  technical  work  of  pupils  and  in  school-room  appa- 
ratus and  fixtures.  Her  display  was  admirable,  and  calcu- 
lated to  inspire  admiration  for  the  country  maldng  it,  and 
thus  indirectly  to  benefit  her  commercial  interests.  Ger- 
many came  next ;  and  the  exhibit  by  France  was  respect- 
able. 

The  exhibition  finally  developed  into  a  permanent 
Educational  Exposition  of  school-furniture,  fixtures,  maps, 
text-books,  etc.,  all  being  well  arranged  in  spacious  rooms 
in  the  second  story  of  the  National  Printing-Office  build- 
ing, and  where  it  now  forms  one  of  the  most  creditable 
displays  that  can  be  found  in  Brazil. 

The  literature  of  the  exhibition  was  also  creditable. 
Conselheiro  Leoncio  de  Carvalho,  first  secretary  of  the 
commission  appointed  to  organize  a  teachers'  congress  in 
connection  with  this  Pedagogical  Exhibition,  contributed 
an  interesting  and  able  introduction  to  the  report  on  the 
exhibition,  in  which  he  first  expresses  regret  because  the 
expected  congress  of  teachers  did  not  take  place  owing  to 
the  failure  of  the  legislature  to  provide  means,  pointing 
out,  at  the  same  time,  the  many  foreign  countries,  begin- 
ning with  Germany  in  1848,  in  which  teachers'  congresses 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION.  173 

have  been  successfully  held.  Thanks,  however,  to  gener- 
ous private  contributions  of  money,  and  to  the  active  co- 
operation of  the  Government,  an  exhibition  was  held,  and 
many  valuable  written  opinions  or  essays  contributed  to 
educational  literature.  These  opinions  are  printed  in  a 
large  quarto  volume  issued  at  the  same  time  with  the  in- 
troduction and  reports  of  awards  by  committees. 

This  introduction  by  Conselheiro  Carvalho  contains 
much  information  on  the  subject  of  public  instruction  in 
Brazil.  The  condition  of  primary-  instruction,  he  says,  is 
deplorable.  Taking  the  free  population  at  upward  of 
seven  millions,  there  is  but  one  school  in  proportion  to 
every  1,356  inhabitants,  which  is  far  from  satisfying  the 
needs  of  a  population  scattered  over  a  vast  territory,  and 
separated  by  great  distances.  Many  of  the  schools,  too, 
are  not  provided  with  teachers ;  almost  all  are  kejDt  in 
hired  houses,  and  badly  situated  in  sanitary  regards. 
Pupils  of  different  sexes  can  not  attend  the  same  school. 
In  the  whole  country  there  are  1,315  schools  for  girls. 
The  school  population,  composed  of  boys  and  girls  from 
six  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  amounts  to  1,902,454,  of  whom 
only  321,449  are  registered  as  pupils,  leaving  1,581,005 
who  do  not  go  to  any  school.  'No  one  can  teach  a  private 
school  without  being  subjected  to  the  tests  applied  to 
teachers  of  public  schools.  Many  of  the  latter,  Mr.  Car- 
valho says,  are  deficient  in  the  necessary  qualifications. 
The  pay  is  frequently  inadequate;  nor  do  women  have 
the  proper  facihties  for  teaching.  Religious  intolerance 
closes  the  school  to  all  but  Catholics.  The  school  sessions 
are  divided  by  long  intervals,  obliging  the  father  to  send 
his  boy  to  school  twice  a  day,  which  is  inconvenient  for 
all  and  impossible  for  many. 

Mr.  Carvallio  has  not  sought  in  this  introduction  to 


174     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITIOl^  AND  PROSPECTS. 

give  a  rose-colored  sketcli  of  popular  education  that  would 
gratify  tlie  vauitj  especially  of  the  statesmen  of  the  coun- 
try ;  but  he  has  had  the  courage  to  speak  the  truth  like  a 
manly  patriot,  knowing  that  such  a  course  would,  in  the 
end,  prove  the  most  serviceable  to  the  public  welfare. 
He  tells  us  that  popular  education  is  in  a  deplorable  con- 
dition, which,  no  doubt,  is  the  honest  truth  as  regrads 
many  of  its  features. 

Brazil  has  for  many  years  maintained  a  system  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  and  some  of  her  enlightened  statesmen  are 
now  devoting  special  attention  to  its  improvement.  Nat- 
urally, the  great  extent  of  the  country  and  sparseness  of 
its  population  have  been  serious  drawbacks  to  common 
schools  in  the  rural  districts,  and  it  will  be  found  that,  in 
the  endeavor  to  overcome  these,  practices  have  grown, 
such  as  keeping  schools  in  private  houses,  which  would 
seem  novel  in  the  United  States,  where  a  sej)arate  build- 
ing for  a  public  school  is  the  universal  custom.  More 
than  ordinary  interest  was  manifested  in  educational  mat- 
ters by  Minister  Joao  Alfredo  when  at  the  head  of  the 
department  of  the  empire  about  ten  years  ago.  Among 
other  things  he  caused  the  erection  of  the  fine  school- 
building  in  the  Largo  Machado,  where  the  Emperor  fre- 
quently, on  Sundays,  attends  lectures.  He  also  changed 
the  rules  of  the  Polytechnic  School  so  that  students  could 
undergo  examination  without  attendance  on  the  lectures. 
Educational  reform  began  under  him,  and  was  effectively 
continued  by  his  successor,  Conselheiro  Leoncio  de  Car- 
valho,  who  was  appointed  Minister  of  the  Empire  in  the 
early  part  of  1878,  in  the  Sinimbu  Cabinet,  and  who  in  the 
course  of  the  year  and  a  half  that  he  was  in  office  caused 
the  enactment  of  the  law  of  April  19,  1879,  reforming 
primary  and  secondary  instruction  in  the  municipality  of 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION.  175 

the  capital,  and  superior  instruction — schools  of  law,  medi- 
cine, science,  and  theology — throughout  the  empire.  This 
law,  which  will  be  further  referred  to,  forms  a  landmark 
in  Brazilian  education.  One  of  its  advanced  features  was 
the  provision  for  obligatory  education  at  the  capital, 
which,  however,  is  not  yet  enforced  ;  also,  making  instruc- 
tion in  the  Catholic  religion  optional  in  respect  of  non- 
Catholics. 

In  giving  a  brief  outline  of  public  instruction  in  Bra- 
zil, it  is  proper  to  notice,  first,  that  the  several  provinces 
have  separate  and  exclusive  control  of  popular  education 
in  their  respective  limits.  This  is  both  according  to  usage 
for  half  a  century,  and  admitted  constitutional  law.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  central  Government  exercises  exclusive 
control  over  public  academical  education,  or  what  corre- 
sponds to  university  education,  and  over  popular  educa- 
tion in  what  is  called  the  neutral  district  of  the  capital. 
Each  provincial  legislature  raises  and  appropriates  the 
money  for  support  of  primary  and  secondary  schools  in 
the  province,  though  there  is  no  separate  school  fund,  and 
makes  the  laws  for  the  organization  of  such  schools.  The 
central  Government  has  an  indirect  authority  over  the 
schools  in  this  way,  that  each  president  of  a  province,  by 
and  under  whom  school  inspectors,  examiners,  and  com- 
mittees are  appointed,  receives  his  appointment  from  and 
must  report  to  the  central  Government.  There  has  been 
no  complaint,  however,  of  undue  interference  by  the  cen- 
tral Government  with  the  separate  educational  affairs  of 
the  provinces.  Primary  schools  are  those  where  the  simple 
branches  are  taught,  such  as  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
and  geography,  and  are  attended  by  pupils  of  from  seven 
to  about  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age.  Secondary 
schools  are  of  a  higher  grade,  where  those  branches  are 


176     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

taught  which  are  usually  studied  by  pupils  intending  to 
pursue  an  academical  course.  In  the  primary  schools  of 
first  grade,  in  the  capital,  according  to  the  law  of  April 
19, 1879,  drawing,  singing,  gymnastics,  and  simple  sew- 
ing for  girls,  form  part  of  the  intruction ;  and  in  the  same 
schools  of  the  second  grade,  the  use  of  the  needle  by  girls 
and  mechanical  work  by  boys,  ideas  of  social  economy  for 
boys  and  of  domestic  economy  for  girls,  ideas  of  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  physics,  chemistry,  and  natural  history 
in  their  application  to  industry,  are  among  the  prescribed 
branches  of  instruction. 

As  a  rule,  boys  and  girls  in  Brazil  attend  separate 
schools,  but  the  law  just  cited  allows  mixed  schools  at  the 
capital  for  boys  and  girls  up  to  the  age  of  ten  years ;  and 
now,  generally,  in  the  public  schools  of  Kio  de  Janeiro 
boys  and  girls  up  to  ten  years  of  age  attend  school  to- 
gether. The  same  is  the  practice  in  the  city  of  Pernam- 
buco. 

There  are  six  normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers, situated  at  Kio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Bahia,  Per- 
nambuco,  Maranham,  and  Pard.  Pupils  are  admitted  at 
the  age  of  sixteen,  and  the  course  lasts  six  years.  A  gradu- 
ate of  either  of  these  schools  can  be  employed  as  a  teacher 
without  examination.  Other  teachers,  after  being  once 
examined  and  employed  as  teachers,  must  undergo  a 
further  examination  if  they  take  another  school  in  an- 
other province.  In  each  province,  residing  at  its  capital, 
is  a  committee  of  three  or  five  persons  appointed  by  the 
inspector  of  instruction  of  the  province,  who  examine  all 
persons  applying  to  be  teachers.  The  teacher's  salary  is 
fixed  by  the  Provincial  Assembly.  But  the  school  must 
have  a  certain  average  attendance,  the  number  varying 
in  different  provinces,  but  probably  nowhere  less  than 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTIOK  177 

twenty.  Teachers  get  their  pay  monthly  from  the  pro- 
vincial treasury,  at  the  capital  of  the  province — often  a 
great  distance  off — and  they  can  draw  it  through  a  friend 
or  agent.  The  average  yearly  pay  of  teachers  throughout 
the  country  is  small,  say  one  conto  of  reis,  or  $450,  with 
obligations  to  furnish  apartments  for  the  school.  The  prin- 
cipal (male)  of  one  of  the  large  public  schools  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  receives  1,800  milreis  (say  at  present  $720)  a 
year,  with  rent  of  apartments  connected  ^vith  the  school- 
building  free.  His  tenure,  however,  is  permanent,  and 
after  twenty-five  years'  service  he  will  receive  a  pension  of 
three  quarters  of  his  pay.  The  pay  of  the  second  teacher 
is  about  $200  less,  and  of  the  assistant  over  $300  less. 

After  ten  years'  service,  a  teacher  receives  an  increase 
of  pay ;  after  fifteen  years'  service,  another  increase ;  and 
still  another  increase  after  twenty-five  years'  service,  if  he 
chooses  still  to  continue  in  the  service.  By  custom,  school- 
teachers in  Brazil  bear  the  title  of  "  Professor." 

In  recent  years  the  municipal  government  of  the  capi- 
tal has  created  and  now  supports  two  large  schools  in  spe- 
cial buildings  and  seven  smaller  ones  in  private  buildings, 
in  which  latter  boys  and  girls  attend  together.  The  other 
public  schools  of  the  capital  are  called  government  schools. 

There  are  no  teachers'  institutes,  but  the  teachers  of 
the  "municipal"  schools  of  the  capital  hold  a  general 
meeting  twice  a  year,  lasting  two  or  three  days,  to  which 
other  teachers  are  invited.  Educational  periodicals  have 
been  started  at  different  times,  but  have  had  only  a  tem- 
porary existence.     Another  was  started  the  present  year. 

The  supervision  of  schools  is  exercised  through  the 
inspector-general,  or  director-general,  as  he  is  sometimes 
styled,  of  each  province.  As  has  been  said,  he  receives 
his  appointment  from  the  president  of  the  province. 


178     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITIOIT  AND  PROSPECTS. 

There  is  no  fixed  tenure,  but  changes  are  not  frequent, 
and  valuable  men  are  usually  selected  to  fill  the  office. 
The  inspector-general  of  instruction  for  the  province  of 
Kio  de  Janeiro  receives  a  salary  of  eight  contos  (8,000$- 
000),  eight  thousand  milreis — say  $3,200  per  year ;  the 
inspector-general  for  the  capital,  7,200$000 — say  $2,820 
per  year.  In  the  j^rovince  of  Sao  Paulo  the  salary  is 
$2,400  per  year. 

The  inspector-general  of  instruction  in  each  province 
nominates  or  proposes,  and  the  president  appoints,  a  dele- 
gado,  or  agent,  for  each  comarca^  or  county,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  inspect  both  primary  and  secondary  schools,  and 
see  that  the  teacher  discharges  his  or  her  duty.  The 
teacher  gives  his  returns  and  reports  to  the  delegado,  or 
agent,  by  whom  they  are  communicated  to  the  inspector- 
general.  The  office  of  delegado  is  honorary,  no  pay  being 
attached  to  it.  It  is  sometimes  filled  by  priests,  who  are 
also  occasionally,  but  not  usually,  employed  as  teachers. 
The  inspector-general  visits  schools  personally,  so  far  as 
he  is  able  to  do  so.  He  makes  his  report  to  the  president 
of  the  province,  but  not  to  the  central  Government.  The 
president  usually  presents  an  abstract  of  the  report  in  his 
annual  message  or  address  to  the  Provincial  Assembly ; 
but  he  makes  no  separate  school  report  to  the  central 
Government. 

There  is  no  separate  school-tax  nor  fund,  but  the 
money  for  school  purposes  is  voted  by  the  Provincial  As- 
sembly out  of  any  money  there  may  be  in  the  provincial 
treasury.  Throughout  the  rural  districts,  and  in  many 
towns,  the  public  schools  are  usually  kept  in  private 
rooms,  which  are  provided  by  the  teacher  without  extra 
allowance.  As  has  been  said,  his  contract  is  to  teach  and 
furnish  the  apartments.     The  Government  provides  the 


PUBLIC  mSTRUOTION".  179 

furniture.  Of  course,  these  accommodations  are  fre- 
quently insufficient.  One  will  sometimes  see  school  furni- 
ture that  has  been  imported  from  the  United  States ;  but 
there  are  now  several  places  in  Brazil  where  furniture 
similar  to  the  American  patterns  is  made.  The  pro- 
vincial authority  furnishes  all  the  school-books  gratui- 
tously. 

There  are  as  yet  no  movable  schools,  such  as  are 
found  in  sparsely  settled  parts  of  Scandinavia,  though 
their  introduction  is  being  somewhat  discussed. 

There  are  thirty  school  savings-banks  in  operation. 
The  General  Government  has  committed  itself  to  this 
laudable  system  of  inculcating  habits  of  foresight  and 
economy  in  children  in  the  law  of  April  19,  1879,  re- 
organizing primary  and  secondary  instruction  at  the  capi- 
tal. In  that  law  it  was  required  that  a  savings-bank 
should  be  organized  in  each  school  of  the  first  and  second 
grade — that  is,  that  small  sums  of  money  which  the  pupils 
might  wish  to  deposit  should  be  received,  and  the  amount 
returned  in  due  time  with  interest.  As,  however,  diffi- 
culties were  met  with  in  executing  the  law,  new  regula- 
tions to  obviate  them  were  issued  by  the  Government, 
January  12,  1882. 

There  is  no  uniformity  of  legislation  in  the  different 
provinces  on  the  subject  of  education. 

The  annual  appropriation  for  public  instruction  by 
the  twenty  different  provinces  amounts  in  the  aggregate 
to  two  and  a  half  million  dollars.  In  addition  to  that,  the 
General  Assembly  appropriates  for  higher  instniction, 
and  for  the  public  schools  at  the  capital,  a  little  over  one 
million  dollars,  making  for  the  whole  empire  an  expendi- 
ture of  a  little  upward  of  three  and  a  half  million  dollars 
of  public  money  for  educational  purposes. 


180     BRAZIL;  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  specific  appropriations 
for  the  higher  schools  of  the  empire  and  for  the  public 
schools  of  the  capital  for  the  fi.scal  year  ending  June  30, 

1885 : 

Seminaries  (theological) $44,100 

Law-schools 106,660 

Medical  schools 330,320 

Engineering  School 120,836.80 

Mining  School 33,920 

Normal  School 28,640 

Academy  of  Fine  Arts 28,860 

Dom  Pedro  II  College 173,094.80 

Primary  and  secondary  instruction  at  the  capital 230,436 

Blind,  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Poor  Asylums 60,348.36 

Total $1,157,215.96 

Although  tuition  is  nominally  free,  students  at  the 
higher  professional  schools  have  to  pay  an  annual  fee  for 
matriculation  and  for  examination.  For  example,  the 
course  at  the  Medical  School  occupies  eight  years,  and  a 
fee  of  one  hundred  and  two  milreis — at  present  exchange 
about  forty-one  dollars — must  be  paid  each  year,  of  which 
half  may  be  paid  at  the  time  of  matriculation  or  the 
whole  at  the  time  of  examination.  At  the  Polytechnic 
School  the  fee  is  but  half  as  much.  At  the  time  of  gradu- 
ating, a  fee  must  be  paid  for  the  diploma. 

I  think  I  derived  on  the  whole  a  favorable  impression 
from  a  short  visit  I  made  to  the  Sao  Jose  Public  School, 
supported  by  the  municipality  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
which  must  be  considered  one  of  the  best  in  Brazil.  It  is 
a  free  school,  admitting  pupils  without  regard  to  color 
from  all  parts  of  the  city.  There  are  two  large  rooms  on 
the  basement-floor,  one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls, 
each  having  three  divisions,  separated  by  railings  three 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION".  181 

feet  high.  One  division,  for  example,  had  seats  without 
desks,  another  had  seats  with  desks  ;  and  it  is  the  practice 
every  hour  and  a  half  to  change  the  pupils  from  one  di- 
vision to  another,  when  they  are  expected  to  march  single 
file,  in  good  order,  out  and  in.  I  first  went  into  the  boys' 
room,  and  was  struck  by  its  large  size.  On  one  side  were 
six  large  windov/s  open,  and  the  ceiling  was  very  high. 
The  number  of  boys  registered  in  that  room  was  three 
hundred  and  fourteen ;  but  only  one  hundred  and  forty 
were  present,  the  average  attendance,  and  were  apparent- 
ly of  an  age  from  seven  to  fourteen  years.  An  assistant 
teacher  appeared  to  have  charge.  There  was  at  first  a 
good  deal  of  noise,  like  loud  study,  but  perhaps  not  dis- 
order. The  teacher  rang  a  bell,  and  the  room  quieted 
down  a  little.  All  the  pupils  seemed  well  disposed,  respect- 
ful, and  interested  in  their  work.  The  teacher  offered  to 
have  any  exercise  I  might  wish.  He  called  a  class  of  a 
dozen  or  more  boys  to  read,  and  they  immediately  gath- 
ered in  a  group  around  him  and  me,  that  we  could  the  bet- 
ter hear.  They  appeared  to  go  into  the  work  with  eager- 
ness, and  read,  I  thought,  tolerably  well.  I  was  rather 
pleased  with  their  unrestrained  manner.  From  the  pen- 
manship and  other  things  I  saw,  including  drawing,  I  had 
no  doubt  the  school  was  doing  pretty  good  work.  The 
boys,  who,  I  supposed,  belonged  to  the  working  class,  were 
tidily  dressed,  and  all  had  on  shoes. 

The  girls'  room,  under  female  teachers,  was  more 
quiet.  One  hundred  and  twenty  were  present.  The  room 
was  divided  into  three  divisions  like  the  boys'  room,  and 
they  changed  places  in  fair  order.  A  teacher  works  with 
each  division  at  the  same  time.  A  number  of  excellent 
specimens  of  writing,  and  some  of  drawing  and  sewing, 
were  shown  me.  I  asked  to  have  some  of  the  little  girls 
16 


182     BRAZIL:   ITS  OONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

make  figures,  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  on  the  blackboard,  and  for 
tlie  most  part  tliej  made  the  figures  in  a  neat  and  uni- 
form style,  wbicb  sliowed  that  they  had  received  training 
in  that  frequently  neglected  line.  "  What  reward  do  you 
hold  out  to  pupils  for  special  merit  'I  "  I  inquired  of  the 
principal.  "  We  have  a  seat  of  honor,"  she  replied,  point- 
ing to  a  chair  which  stood  alone  with  the  back  to  the  wall, 
"  where  a  pupil  sits  for  half  an  hour  who  has  her  lesson 
the  most  perfect  of  any  in  her  class."  Then,  at  her  re- 
quest, three  girls  modestly  stood  up  who  had  had  the  honor 
that  forenoon  to  sit  in  the  chair.  "  We  also,"  she  said, 
"  have  a  roll  of  honor  of  the  names  of  three  of  the  most 
advanced  pupils,  which  is  framed  and  hung  upon  the  wall 
at  the  end  of  every  three  months."  At  the  close  of  my 
visit  she  gave  me  an  opportunity  to  enter  in  a  large 
blank-book,  kept  for  the  remarks  visitors  may  wish  to 
make,  such  observations  in  regard  to  the  school  as  I  chose 
to  record. 

As  applicable  to  both  of  the  schools,  I  learned  that 
books  and  stationery  were  furnished  free  by  the  city  gov- 
ernment. The  term  lasts  eleven  months  continuously, 
with  a  vacation  during  December.  The  session  each  day 
is  five  hours,  from  9  a.  ivi.  to  2  p.  m.,  with  a  short  inter- 
mission. The  pupils  study  at  home  as  well  as  at  school. 
There  are  gymnastic  exercises  twice  a  week,  also  instruc- 
tion in  singing  twice  a  week.  There  are  four  grades, 
each  of  which  is  expected  to  be  passed  by  a  pupil  in  one 
year.  A  register  is  kept,  and  there  is  a  roll-call  at  the 
end  of  each  day.  It  is  intended  that  study  in  school  shall 
be  silent.  Attention  is  paid  to  moral  instruction,  but  it 
is  incidental.  The  school  is  opened  with  prayers  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  but  attendance  thereat  is  not  obligatory. 
No  particular  religious  qualifications  are  required  of  the 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION".  183 

teachers ;  but  they  must  be  Brazilian  subjects.  Corporal 
punishment  is  not  allowed  in  any  school.  The  kind  of 
punishment  resorted  to  is  usually  to  have  the  pupil  stand, 
or  to  deprive  him  of  a  recess  or  of  some  favor.  Parents 
are  always  welcome,  but  they  seldom  visit  the  school. 
The  committee  of  examination  is  appointed  by  the  Mu- 
nicipal Chamber.  The  director  who  now  has  charge  of  the 
municipal  schools  is  Dr.  Chagas  Kosa. 

These  two  schools  occupy  separate  wings  of  a  build- 
ing, the  central  part  of  which  on  the  same  floor  is  a  gen- 
eral assembly-room  for  the  whole  school,  and  which  has 
at  one  end  an  altar  that  ordinarily  is  shut  from  view  by  a 
curtain.  The  front  of  the  building  outside  is  somewhat 
pretentious,  there  being  four  or  more  large  statues  set  in 
niches,  and  very  much  out  of  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
building.  The  windows,  however,  are  arched  with  the 
usual  smooth  granite  facings.  The  building  has  a  gray 
stone  color  which  is  agreeable.  Ample  granite  steps  are 
laid  at  each  of  three  front  entrances,  and  a  neat  but  not 
large  yard  contains  some  patches  of  lawn,  some  flowers 
and  shrubbery,  and  several  shade-trees,  all  being  inclosed 
with  an  iron  fence  resting  on  a  granite  base. 

Having  noticed  that  the  school-teacher  in  Brazil  is 
called  "  Professor,"  I  did  not  know  but  more  than  ordi- 
nary respect  might  be  felt  for  the  calling,  and  I  asked  the 
principal  of  one  of  the  Kio  public  schools  what  rank  teach- 
ers held  in  society.  "  The  GovernmcDt,"  he  said,  "  would 
like  to  give  consideration  to  the  profession,  but  naturally 
a  man  with  an  income  of  only  six  or  eight  hundred  dol- 
lars a  year  can  not  occupy  much  of  a  position  in  society." 

One  of  the  best  educational  institutions  is  the  Lyceu 
de  Artes  e  Officios^  a  sort  of  technical  school  for  fitting 
young  people  of  the  middle  and  poorer  class  for  gaining  a 


184     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

livelihood.  It  lias  very  roomy  apartments  opposite  the 
IS'ational  Printing-Office.  Instruction  is  given  evenings 
to  nearly  a  thousand  pupils  of  both  sexes  in  various  useful 
branches,  including  drawing,  painting,  sculpture,  French, 
and  English.  The  institution  was  founded  in  1856,  through 
the  efforts  of  Mr.  F.  J.  Bettencourt  da  Silva. 

There  are  not  many  separate  school-buildings  in  Eio ; 
but  there  are  many  places  where  one  sees  a  painted  sign 
showing  that  there  is  a  school  kept  for  boys  or  girls. 
One  sees  also,  between  eight  and  nine  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, many  tidy  children  with  their  books,  sometimes  alone, 
sometimes  a  colored  servant  following  close  behind  them, 
wending  with  animated  step  their  way  to  school. 

There  is  scarcely  any  encouragement  for  American 
teachers  to  go  to  Brazil  with  the  expectation  of  employ- 
ment in  the  public  schools.  A  number  of  such,  it  is  true, 
have  found  their  way  to  the  Argentine  Republic,  but  their 
expectations  were  not  realized;  they  have  had  a  hard 
time.  I  think,  however,  that  American  young  men  who 
would  learn  the  Portuguese  language  would  find  remu- 
nerative and  agreeable  employment  as  teachers  of  the 
English  language  in  the  families  of  planters. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

LOCAL   ADMINISTKATION. 

A  GOOD  share  of  the  contentment  of  people  in  almost 
every  country  arises  from  their  liberty  to  manage  their  own 
local  affairs.  Even  in  old  European  countries,  ^vith  abso- 
lute governments,  the  people  have  generally  been  allowed 
to  have  their  own  way  about  many  local  concerns. 

For  local  government,  every  province  of  Brazil  is 
divided  into  municipalities.  Sometimes  a  municipality 
will  include  simply  a  city  with  its  suburbs ;  sometimes  a 
small  city  or  village,  and  a  large  extent  of  contiguous  ter- 
ritory. In  this  municipality  we  find  that  the  people  can 
elect  a  municipal  body  or  council,  called  a  chamber,  con- 
sisting, in  cities,  of  nine,  and  in  villages  of  seven,  members 
who  hold  for  four  years,  and  whose  president,  holding  for 
one  year,  is  elected  by  them  from  their  own  number. 
This  president  is  the  executive  officer  for  the  city,  and 
corresponds  somewhat  to  the  office  of  mayor  in  the 
United  States.  The  Municipal  Chamber,  whose  room  is 
often  in  the  same  building  as  the  jail,  can  levy  a  tax  on  a 
few  things,  such  as  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  spirits, 
the  slaughter  of  beef-cattle,  licenses,  etc.,  but  it  can  not 
tax  property  in  general — neither  houses  nor  vacant  lots, 
nor  personal  property.  The  greater  part  of  the  municipal 
expenses  are  paid  out  of  the  municipal  treasury  from  its 


186     BRAZIL:   ITS  COiilDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

own  revenue,  but  nothing  can  be  expended  without  the 
consent  of  the  Provincial  Assembly.  The  amount  which 
any  municipality  may  spend  in  a  year  has  already  been 
fixed  and  limited  by  the  Provincial  Assembly,  and  the 
Municipal  Chamber  must  limit  its  estimate  of  expenses  to 
such  sum.  The  practice  is  for  each  municipal  chamber 
to  send,  in  due  season,  every  year,  its  budget  or  estimate 
of  expenses,  specifying  how  much  under  each  head,  to  the 
Provincial  Assembly ;  and  the  latter,  usually  as  a  matter 
of  course,  votes  the  amount  in  a  general  bill  for  all  the 
municipalities  of  the  province,  yet  showing  the  items  for 
each  municipality — so  much  for  salaries,  so  much  for 
lights,  so  much  for  rent,  and  so  on.  If  the  municipalities 
have  not  quite  money  enough  in  their  OAvn  treasuries,  the 
deficiency  is  voted  out  of  the  provincial  treasury;  but 
such  deficiency  probably  would  not  amount  in  all  to  more 
than  a  quarter  part  of  the  aggregate  mimicipal  budgets. 
The  MunicijDal  Chamber  has  no  control  of  schools,  nor 
of  the  police,  nor  of  paupers,  and  its  powers  indeed  seem 
to  be  quite  limited.  It  has,  however,  charge  of  sanitary 
matters,  and  of  roads  and  streets  in  its  limits.  Besides 
electing  a  "  chamber,"  the  people  can  elect  justices  of  the 
peace;  but  the  agent  and  sub-agent  of  police,  the  col- 
lector of  taxes,  the  prosecuting  attorney,  the  inspector  of 
schools,  and  tlie  school-teachers  are  all  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  province.  Of  course,  the  parish  priest  is 
appointed  by  the  bishop.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it 
does  not  seem  that  a  large  amount  of  local  self-govern- 
ment devolves  on  the  people. 

The  Municipal  Council  of  Eio  de  Janeiro,  like  the 
others,  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  its  presi- 
dent is  the  executive  officer  of  the  city.  As,  however, 
Eio  de  Janeiro,  hke  the  city  of  Washington,  is  directly 


LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION".  187 

under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  General  Government,  the 
council  has  subordinate  authority.  The  matters  of  water- 
supply  and  street  lights,  for  example,  are  controlled  by 
the  Imperial  Government.  The  municipal  body  has  no 
power  to  run  into  debt ;  consequently,  Kio,  for  a  city  of  its 
size,  has  a  very  small  debt.  The  city  government,  how- 
ever, justly  or  unjustly,  is  the  target  of  a  great  deal  of 
complaint.  Within  a  couple  of  years  it  has  moved  into 
its  new  and  handsome  building,  with  marble  floors  and 
spacious  marble  stairways,  fronting  on  Acclamation  Park. 
The  criminal  court  is  held  in  the  same  building. 

The  twenty  provinces  of  Brazil  not  only  have  their 
separate  legislatures  and  executive  governments,  but  they 
can  and  do  levy  taxes  on  the  live-stock  and  products 
brought  into  their  respective  limits  from  sister  provinces. 

At  the  capital  of  every  province  there  is  a  chief  of 
police — an  office  next  in  dignity  to  that  of  president,  and 
for  which  is  usually  selected  a  man  of  acknowledged  judi- 
cial or  legal  ability.  He  receives  his  appointment  from 
the  central  Government. 

The  office  of  provincial  president,  like  that  of  the 
Governor  of  a  State,  is  very  important.  The  appointment 
to  it  is  made  by  the  central  Government  without  regard 
to  place  of  residence.  Sometimes  very  able  men  are  ap- 
pointed to  this  office ;  often,  however,  young  and  rather 
inexperienced  men  are  appointed.  The  service  is  re- 
garded as  a  good  school  for  training  statesmen,  and  some 
of  the  ablest  administrators  of  Brazil  have  served  as  pro- 
vincial presidents.  The  office  affords  a  fine  field  for 
statesman-like  ability,  but,  unfortunately,  it  has  been 
granted  in  many  cases  as  a  reward  for  party  service,  and 
changes  have  been  frequent.  The  "  Paiz,"  a  daily  "  jor- 
nal "  of  Kio,  of  May  19,  1885,  laments  that  the  Govern- 


188     BRAZIL:   ITS  COIfDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

ment  should  so  often  change  the  presidents  of  the  prov- 
inces, not  allowing  them  time  to  become  experienced.  A 
position  as  president,  it  says,  is  nearly  always  given  with 
a  view  toward  one  of  these  two  ends :  to  enable  a  party 
colleague  to  receive  a  certain  amount  of  money  for  ex- 
penses of  moving,  or  to  find  him  a  temporary  situation 
during  the  intervals  of  the  legislatures.  As  a  rule,  the 
administration  of  a  president  lasts  only  five  or  six  months. 
The  "  Paiz  "  says  it  knows  of  one  who  received  ten  contos 
of  reis  (four  thousand  dollars)  to  defray  "  expenses "  to 
go  to  Nictheroy  (a  distance  of  four  miles)  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  the  province. 

"  The  financial  state  of  the  provinces,"  this  journal 
adds,  "is  very  bad;  the  most  important  have  a  deficit 
which  they  can  not  meet.  In  some  the  police  is  not 
paid,  in  others  public-school  teachers  are  left  without  a 
penny,  in  others  public  employes  are  paid  in  tenders ;  all 
of  which  tend  to  paralyze  necessary  works  and  to  cause 
general  poverty.  This  state  of  affairs,"  it  says,  "  shows  a 
profound  defect  of  administration,  and  threatens,  if  con- 
tinued, to  ruin  the  country." 

It  would  take  at  least  a  couple  of  years  for  even  a 
bright  man  to  become  familiar  with  all  the  official  duties 
of  president  of  an  important  province.  In  his  reports  and 
messages  to  the  Provincial  Assembly  he  must  annually 
submit  a  clear  statement  of  the  condition  of  the  province 
and  its  needs  in  respect  of  legislation;  its  industries, 
means  of  transportation,  education,  care  of  tlie  poor,  tran- 
quillity, and  all  the  various  interests  that  affect  its  weKare, 
need  his  guidance.  All  bills  of  the  Provincial  Assembly 
appropriating  money  for  roads  and  bridges,  improvements 
of  navigation,  schools,  churches,  the  promotion  of  immi- 
gration, and  the  like,  are  approved  or  rejected  by  him. 


LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  189 

It  is  remarkable,  therefore,  and,  I  should  think,  very 
unfortunate,  that  presidents  of  provinces  hold  their 
offices,  on  an  average,  only  about  one  year  or  less.  Tlie 
practice  in  several  European  countries,  of  giving  a  perma- 
nent tenure  to  such  posts,  and  filling  them  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  tried  and  competent  statesmen  who  wish  to  retire 
from  active  politics,  would  seem  preferable.  I  know  of 
at  least  one  well-administered  state  in  Europe  where  such 
posts  are  considered  a  dignified  retreat  for  ex-cabinet  min- 
isters. 

There  are  several  other  provincial  officers,  such  as  the 
secretary,  the  inspector  of  instruction,  the  collector  of 
taxes,  and  the  engineer.  The  latter  has  charge  of  all 
highways  outside  of  the  municipal  limits. 

Most  legislative  assemblies  will  vote  money  lavishly 
when  they  have  an  overflowing  treasury  to  draw  from. 
But  years  of  abundance  are  only  exceptional;  and  it 
would  benefit  a  province  if  its  president  had  that  position 
and  influence  that  would  enable  him  to  prevent  extrava- 
gant appropriations.  Take  the  province  of  Amazonas,  for 
example ;  for  a  year  or  two,  rubber,  its  great  product,  had 
a  very  high  price ;  the  export  of  it  was  immensely  stimu- 
lated, and,  as  the  province  collected  a  high  export  tax  on 
the  article,  its  treasury  suddenly  acquired  a  large  surplus. 
What  was  the  result  ?  The  Provincial  Assembly  voted 
away  the  money  in  a  prodigal  manner ;  and  then  in  a  year 
or  so,  when  the  rubber-trade  suffered  a  very  great  depres- 
sion, they  found  their  treasury  very  short  of  money. 
Baron  de  Mamore,  of  that  province,  spoke  of  this  matter 
in  the  Senate  on  March  23,  1885.  He  is  a  Conservative, 
and  naturally  was  not  unwilling  to  make  a  point  against 
the  (Liberal)  party  in  power.  He  said  that,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1884,  the  province  had  in  hand  a  balance  of 


190     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 


)jOOO ;  when  the  ex-president  turned  over  the  admin- 
istration to  his  successor,  the  balance  was  $370,000 ;  not 
quite  a  year  had  passed,  and  the  province  of  Amazonas 
had  not  a  penny  to  pay  its  public  employes.  Of  the  public 
works  be^n,  not  one  had  been  completed ;  the  money 
expended  so  far  would  be  a  total  loss,  for  it  was  not  prob- 
able that  the  province  would  continue  to  have  presidents 
who  considered  a  theatre  costing  $400,000  and  a  lyceum 
based  on  European  universities  necessary  to  the  capital. 
He  mentioned  as  irregularities  the  granting  of  subsidies 
to  students  of  photography,  short-hand  writing,  law,  medi- 
cine, etc.,  amounting  to  $7,200 ;  for  a  theatre,  $20,000 ;  a 
monument,  $27,000 ;  and  said  that  subsidies  and  interest 
guarantees  amounted  to  a  million  dollars.  "With  reference 
to  the  pubhc  emancipation  fund  of  the  province  (the  most 
sacred  of  any  money),  he  read  an  official  table  showing 
that  $48,000  had  been  disbursed,  of  which  $4,000  was  ex- 
pended m  fetes,  and  said  that  up  to  the  middle  of  Janu- 
ary none  of  the  abolition  committees  had  settled  accounts. 
He  had  made  a  memorandum  of  a  case,  which  he  read, 
where  the  party  told  him  that  he  had  received  a  loan  of 
$3,200  from  a  member  of  a  committee  on  the  emancipa- 
tion fund ;  and,  upon  making  the  first  partial  payment, 
was  told  that  there  was  no  hurry  for  paying  the  balance, 
which  would  be  called  for  when  the  lender  had  to  settle 
accounts  with  the  treasury. 

Some  of  the  provinces  occupy  a  respectable  position 
in  regard  to  what  has  been  done  in  the  establishment  of 
humane  and  benevolent  institutions.  There  are  several, 
however,  which  are  still  behindhand. 

The  chief  of  police  of  the  province  of  Parand,  in  his 
annual  report  to  the  president  of  the  province,  1883,  says, 
"  I  receive  constant  requests  from  various  points  in  the 


LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION^.  191 

province  to  receive  into  the  jail  at  the  capital  (Curitiba) 
insane  people,  which  I  can  not  satisfy,  both  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  practice  would  be  irregular,  and  that  there 
are  not  accommodations." 

So,  also,  the  manager  of  the  public  hospital  of  Maran- 
ham,  in  his  report  of  1881,  laments  that  there  is  no  suit- 
able place  for  the  treatment  of  the  insane,  who  have  to 
be  kept  in  the  same  building  with  other  sick  patients. 
The  insane  in  the  province,  he  states,  could  be  counted 
by  hundreds,  and  there  was  no  suitable  building  for  them. 
Some  even  wandered  the  streets  without  food  or  shelter. 
The  next  year,  however,  a  country-house  was  bought  and 
appropriated  for  the  shelter  of  the  insane. 

The  Minister  of  the  Department  of  the  Empire,  in  his 
annual  report  for  1884,  submitted  the  following  reflec- 
tions as  to  the  need  of  reorganizing  the  provincial  and 
municipal  governments:  "The  law  of  October  1,  1828, 
which  modeled  the  provincial  and  municipal  administra- 
tions, has  failed  of  successful  execution,  in  consequence  of 
inadequate  political  conditions.  A  centralizing  system 
has  always  arisen  against  its  development.  This  antago- 
nism has  created  an  abnormal  situation,  in  which  the  un- 
certainty of  rights  and  consequent  weakness  of  authority, 
which  should  direct  society,  have  produced  disturbance, 
which  must  not  continue,  for  the  material  and  intellectual 
progress  of  our  country  will  not  allow  it. 

"  The  law  of  October  1, 1828,  which  defined  the  func- 
tions of  the  municipalities,  has  been  violated  frequently 
by  the  Municipal  Chamber  of  Eio  de  Janeiro.  Of  forty- 
nine  days  designed  for  ordinary  sessions,  and  seven  for 
extraordinary,  the  Chamber  did  not  sit  twenty-five.  And 
even  of  the  days  it  did  sit,  some  were  entirely  thrown 
away,  in  consequence  of  the  disorderly  discussions  and 


192     BEAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

violent  and  tumultuous  scenes  among  the  members.  Gov- 
ernment spared  no  means  to  set  matters  aright ;  but,  not 
succeeding,  the  members  were  suspended,  and  those  of 
the  preceding  legislature  were  re-elected  j^ro  tern.  The 
latter  have  been  able  to  re-establish  order  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  municipality,  and  have  set  themselves  to 
meliorate  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  city." 

The  report  sets  forth,  therefore,  the  urgent  necessity 
of  a  reorganization  of  the  municipalities,  whereby  may 
be  given  to  each  body,  which  intervenes  in  its  adminis- 
tration, certain  and  defined  positions,  and  unquestionable 
functions,  so  as  not  to  continue  the  abnormal  state  of 
affairs  of  to-day,  in  which  the  administrative  powers  waste 
their  strength  in  a  mutual  contest  as  to  their  respective 
spheres  of  action.  At  present  the  central  Government  is 
too  much  burdened  with  local  affairs  of  too  little  impor- 
tance compared  with  national  affairs. 

A  Portuguese  long  ago  said  that  the  fortune  of  a  court- 
ier consisted  in  knowing  how  to  flatter,  to  lie,  to  steal, 
and  to  divide.  It  would  be  singular  if  such  talents  had 
not  descended  to  the  present  generation ;  only  we  must 
remember  that  in  any  country  the  scene  of  the  courtier's 
tricks  shifts  according  as  power  and  the  purse-strings 
change  from  one  branch  of  government  to  another.  In 
the  meaning  of  this  Portuguese  philosopher,  there  is  no 
material  difference  between  the  courtier  and  the  lobbyist. 
We  know  that  in  the  best  countries  there  must  be  occa- 
sional cases  of  malversation,  defalcation,  and  corruption 
in  office ;  and  it  is  when  these  cases  are  dragged  to  light, 
exposed,  and  punished  that  one  may  safely  conclude  that 
the  administration  as  a  whole  is  sound  and  honest.  I 
would  not  leave  the  impression  that  there  is  overmuch 
corruption  in  Brazilian  administration ;  it  is  a  subject  I 


LOCAL  ADMINISTEATIOJST.  193 

am  too  little  acquainted  witli  to  give  an  opinion  upon.  I 
know,  however,  that  intelligent  and  upright  business  men 
openly  and  firmly  assert  that  administration  is  corrupt. 
Further,  I  have  no  knowledge  of  any  recent  case  where 
any  functionary  has  been  punished  for  misbehavior  in 
office.  All  that  the  public  knows  of  corruption  is  what 
appears  from  a  few  feeble  squeaks  and  murmurs  of  anony- 
mous correspondents  through  the  paid  columns  of  a  news- 
paper. 

Able  Brazilian  publicists  have  repeatedly  said  with 
truth  that  the  Brazilian  has  much  better  facilities  for 
learning  what  has  transpired  and  what  is  taking  place  in 
foreign  countries  than  he  has  of  what  is  taking  place  in 
his  own  country. 

"  This  sad  condition  of  the  Brazilian,  knowing  more 
about  foreigners  than  of  his  own  people,"  says  Dr.  Yieira 
Souto,  "  will  only  cease  when  our  legislators  become  satis- 
fied that  statistics  are  the  only  guide  for  making  known 
the  manner  of  existence  and  the  development  of  society 
in  all  of  its  manifestations,  the  light  which  clearly  guides 
the  way  for  improving  all  branches  of  the  public  service." 

The  principle  of  permanency,  however,  appears  to 
exist  in  all  branches  of  the  civil  service  of  Brazil  except 
in  the  office  of  provincial  president. 
17 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

PAELIAMENTAKY   GOVEENMENT. 

The  two  parliamentary  bodies  composing  tlie  national 
legislature  consist  of  a  Senate,  whose  members,  elected  for 
life,  are  chosen  by  and  represent  the  separate  provinces ; 
and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  whose  members,  elected  for  a 
term  of  four  years,  are  chosen  by  and  represent  separate 
districts.  In  the  election  of  senator  three  persons  are 
voted  for,  one  of  whom,  and  usually  the  one  having  the 
highest  number  of  votes,  is  appointed  by  the  Emperor. 
The  position  of  senator  is  the  most  independent,  digni- 
fied, and  desirable  political  office  to  which  the  Brazilian 
subject  is  ehgible.  The  prime  minister  and  several  of 
the  Cabinet  are  usually  senators,  still  retaining  tfieir  sena- 
torial position.  The  senators  generally  have  passed  the 
middle  of  life  before  their  election.  They  are  liberally 
paid,  and,  like  many  of  the  deputies,  are  well-trained  and 
able  politicians  and  debaters.  Of  the  two  hundred  and 
twelve  senators  who,  up  to  1884,  had  been  elected  since 
the  creation  of  the  Senate,  two  resigned,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-four  died  after  an  average  service  of  fifteen 
years.  The  average  service  of  the  fifty-six  senators  then 
serving  was  eleven  and  a  quarter  years. 

The  proceedings  in  both  bodies  are  usually  of  a  digni- 
fied and  courteous  character.     The  debates  and  speeches 


PARLIAMENTARY   GOYERNMENT.  195 

are  taken  down  by  stenographers  and  published  at  length 
in  the  leading  morning  newspaper  of  the  capital,  which 
is,  perhaps,  an  incentive  to  excessive  talk.  The  interrup- 
tions are  very  numerous.  While  a  member  is  speaking, 
some  other  member,  remaining  in  his  seat,  will  exclaim, 
"  I  agree  w^th  you ! "  or,  '^  I  don't  agree  with  you ! "  This 
will  be  done  every  few  minutes,  sometimes  several  mem- 
bers joining  in  the  approval  or  dissent.  The  interrup- 
tions sometimes  become  as  frequent  and  noisy  as  in  an  old- 
fashioned  Methodist  camp-meeting.  The  journal  wliich 
gets  paid  for  reporting  the  debates  interlards  all  of  the 
interruptions — printing  them,  indeed,  in  italics.  The 
speeches  are  delivered  extemporaneously,  and  usually  in 
a  conversational  rather  than  declamatory  manner. 

An  example  of  humor  in  debate  was  a  passage  in  a 
late  speech  of  Senator  Silveira  Martins.  He  criticised 
the  concentration  of  forces  on  the  southern  frontier,  say- 
ing that  one  of  the  brigadiers  was  eighty  years  old,  and 
falls  off  his  horse  when  it  stops ;  and  another,  appointed 
to  command  a  cavalry  brigade,  is  paralyzed,  never  leaves 
his  room,  and  can  not  even  write.  Another  officer,  sent 
from  Rio  Grande  to  Matto-Grosso,  was  obliged  to  mount 
an  ox  when  proceeding  on  an  expedition,  and  he  produced 
a  photograph  in  proof  of  his  assertion.  Thus  the  coun- 
try was  in  a  perfect  state  of  defense  ;  by  sea  it  only  had 
turtles,  and  on  shore  bovine  cavalry ! 

There  is  no  especially  Catholic  party  in  either  the 
Chamber  or  the  Senate,  but  the  leading  friend  of  the 
Church  is  Deputy  Yianna,  of  Rio,  whose  remarks  often 
have  a  religious  tone.  In  a  late  speech  he  declared  that 
his  only  intervention  in  the  election  in  the  province  of 
Goyaz  was,  writing  a  letter  to  the  bishop,  asking  his  pro- 
tection for  the  Conservative  candidate,  which  the  bishop 


196     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

did  not  consider  lie  could  extend,  but  contented  himself 
with  prayer  that  so  Catholic  a  community  should  not  be 
represented  by  an  enemy  of  the  Church,  and  therefore  of 
the  country ;  and  that  the  bishop's  prayer  had  been  heard ! 
The  Senate-house  is  a  plain  and  separate  building 
about  a  mile  distant  from  that  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, fronts  on  the  now  handsome  Park  of  Santa  Anna, 
and  is  close  to  the  Mint.  The  Senate-chamber  is  about 
the  size  of  the  old  Senate-chamber,  now  Supreme  Court- 
room, at  Washington.  The  floor  is  carpeted,  and  the 
chairs  are  arranged  in  three  semicircular  rows  divided 
by  two  aisles ;  and  what  answers  for  a  continuous  railing 
in  front  of  them,  and  against  which  senators  can  lean 
when  they  speak,  has  a  polished  top  of  Brazil-wood,  ma- 
hogany-colored, and  about  ten  inches  wide,  which  opens 
toward  the  chair  so  as  to  form  a  handy,  cloth-covered  desk 
for  each  senator  when  he  has  occasion  to  write.  As  a 
rule,  these  desks  are  closed,  and  thus  outwardly  form  a 
convenient  raihng.  The  President  of  the  Senate,  Baron 
Cotigipe  (prime  minister  since  the  latter: part  of  1885), 
leader  of  the  Conservative  party,  and  a  man  who  looks  a 
good  deal  as  Henry  Wilson  did  when  a  senator,  sits  at  the 
center  of  a  long  and  wide  table,  with  the  Yice-President 
and  Secretaries,  all  of  whom  are  senators,  on  either  side  of 
him.  Behind  the  President's  chair  a  long  green,  curtain, 
suspended  from  the  ceiling,  shuts  off  the  view  of  the  im- 
perial chair,  or  throne,  which  the  Emperor  occupies  when 
he  opens  and  closes  the  legislative  session.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  gallery  in  rear  of  the  presiding  ofiScer.  On 
his  right  is  a  small  gallery  for  the  imperial  family,  on 
his  left  another  for  the  diplomatic  body,  each  having  a 
green  curtain  in  front  when  vacant.  Next  to  the  diplo- 
matic gallery  is  one  for  the  families  of  senators,  while  in 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  197 

front  of  the  presiding  officer  is  tlie  general  public  gallery 
that  will  accommodate  a  hundred  people.  On  the  main 
floor  is  a  reception-room  for  senators  and  their  visitors, 
and  another  exclusively  for  the  Cabinet  ministers.  The 
first  time  that  I  saw  the  then  prime  minister,  Senator 
Dantas,  was  in  the  Senate  the  afternoon  of  the  2Tth  of  Au- 
gust, 1884,  toward  the  close  of  the  session  of  Parliament. 
lie  is,  perhaps,  a  little  under  medium  height,  stoutly 
built,  with  large  and  pleasant  face,  full  beard,  slightly 
gray,  abundant  hair,  complexion  hardly  as  dark  as  the 
usual  Brazilian,  large  brown  eyes,  and  wears  glasses.  His 
dress  and  manner  were  very  simple.  His  coat  was  a  dark- 
blue  cloth  sack  which  came  below  his  Imees.  He  was  at 
first  sitting  on  the  left  side  of  the  presiding  officer,  but 
soon  went  to  one  of  the  usual  seats  and  engaged  in  con- 
versation a  few  minutes  with  his  predecessor.  Senator 
Lafayette.  About  ten  minutes  afterward  he  rose  and 
made  a  five  minutes'  speech  in  reply  to  some  senators  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  Chamber  suddenly  became  ex- 
ceedingly still  as  he  began  to  speak,  and  so  continued  dur- 
ing his  remarks.  He  held  in  his  right  hand  a  printed 
document,  gesticulated  slightly  with  his  left  hand  and 
arm,  leaned  a  little  over  the  railing  in  front  of  him,  spoke 
in  a  conversational  tone,  fluently  and  earnestly,  yet  with 
unaffected  modesty,  which,  joined  to  good  temper,  un- 
doubtedly is  his  characteristic  strong  point.  Shortly  after 
he  had  finished  he  stepped  over  across  the  aisle  and  stood 
conversing  a  few  minutes  with  Senator  Sinimbu,  a  former 
distinguished  Liberal  prime  minister. 

Senator  Sinimbti  looks  more  like  an  American  or  an 
Englishman  than  a  Brazilian.  His  complexion  is  inclined 
to  be  florid.  His  face  is  shaved,  except  a  thin  and  gray 
beard  on  each  side  and  under  his  chin.     Senator  Lafayette 


198     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

is  of  mednm  height,  inclined  to  be  stout,  has  rather  a  He- 
brew face,  very  expressive  black  eyes,  is  somewhat  bald, 
but  with  some  strands  of  jet-black  hair  over  the  top  of  his 
head.  He  wears  glasses,  and  might  be  taken  for  a  college 
professor.  He  is  distinguished  for  eloquence.  Senator 
Saraiva,  who  assumed  the  office  of  prime  minister,  May 
5,  1885,  is  a  man  perhaps  of  as  much  character  as  there 
is  in  public  life  in  Brazil.  He  is  a  tall  man,  with  white 
hair  and  beard,  sixty  years  of  age  or  upward,  stoutly  built, 
a  little  stooping,  wears  a  tall  hat  and  long  sack  or  over- 
coat, generally  has  a  cigar  in  his  mouth  when  in  the  street, 
is  eminently  practical  and  active,  and  might  easily  be  taken 
for  a  large  landed  proprietor  and  energetic  planter,  which 
he  is.  These  four,  that  I  have  mentioned,  are  Liberals. 
Several  of  the  Conservative  senators  are  planters  of  wealth 
and  culture,  and  distinguished  in  appearance.  The  sen- 
ators are  mostly  large-sized  men,  and  seem  to  enjoy  them- 
selves seated  in  their  arm-chairs  Avith  backs  as  high  as  their 
shoulders.  I^ow  and  then  one  of  them  will  take  a  pinch 
of  snuff,  and  the  bigger  magnate  he  is,  the  more  likely  he 
he  is  to  pull  out  a  red  cotton  handkerchief  with  which  to 
wipe  his  nose.  I  have  looked  down  from  the  gallery  on 
the  Senate  of  modem  Kome,  but  somehow  I  fancy  that 
these  Brazilian  lawgivers  resemble  the  ancient  Romans  as 
much  as  any  I  have  seen.  As  a  rule,  the  senators  spend 
a  great  deal  of  their  time  at  the  capital,  and  have  much 
influence  in  the  Government. 

The  lower  house,  called  Chamber  of  Deputies,  takes 
the  initiatory  in  taxation  and  appropriations,  but  in  mat- 
ters of  ceremony  the  Senate  has  precedence.  It  is  to  the 
Senate  that  the  Emperor  goes  to  open  or  close  a  session. 
If  the  two  bodies  differ  on  some  bill,  committees  of  confer- 
ence are  not  appointed,  as  is  done  in  the  American  Con- 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  199 

gi'ess,  but  the  two  bodies  meet  in  joint  convention  to  con- 
sider tbe  question.  The  deputies  in  such  case  go  to  the 
Senate,  and  sit  or  stand  in  a  crowded  condition  on  one 
side  of  the  chamber  while  the  senators  occupy  the  other 
side.  These  joint  meetings  are  rare,  and  the  business 
done  on  such  occasions  is  merely  formal.  I  happened  to 
be  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  when  a  committee  of  three, 
who  had  been  sent  to  the  Senate  to  ascertain  when  the 
latter  body  would  receive  the  deputies  in  such  a  joint  as- 
sembly, returned  and  made  their  report.  All  three  were 
in  evening  dress — w^hite  cravats,  white  tid  gloves,  and 
swallow-tailed  coats. 

The  Government  is  essentially  parhamentary.  Cabi- 
nets come  into  power  and  go  out  according  to  the  support 
they  get  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  'No  Cabinet  under- 
takes to  exist  without  a  good  working  majority  in  that 
body.  The  Cabinet  ministers  sit  and  speak  in  each  body. 
Depending  as  it  does  for  existence  on  the  will  of  the  popu- 
lar branch  of  the  legislature,  the  administration  is  neces- 
sarily influenced  very  much  by  public  opinion,  and  is  in 
danger  of  being  influenced  even  by  popular  clamor.  The 
fact  that  in  recent  times  Cabinets  have  changed  about  once 
a  year  would  seem  to  show  that  there  is  considerable  in- 
trigue in  political  circles,  or  else  that  the  situation  has  been 
exceedingly  peculiar.  I  think  that  intrigue  has  had  much 
to  do  with  the  changes. 

The  Minister  of  Finance  is  usually  the  President  of  the 
Council  and  virtual  prime  minister.  He  it  is,  rather  than 
the  Emperor,  who  is  regarded  as  responsible  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Government ;  and  he  is  accordingly 
allowed  to  have  his  own  way  a  good  deal  in  the  selection 
of  his  colleagues ;  though,  of  course,  he  selects  those  men 
who  can  count  on  the  largest  groups  of  friends  among  the 


200     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PEOSPEOTS. 

deputies.  The  ministry  of  Mr.  Lafayette  came  in  on 
May  24,  1883.  His  minister  of  tlie  Department  of  "War 
was  Deputy  Antonio  Joaquim  Kodrigues,  Jr.,  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Ceara,  whom  in  the  month  of  February  follow- 
ing he  caused  to  resign ;  not,  however,  without  resorting 
to  correspondence  which  produced  some  sensation  and 
which  was  justly  regarded  as  quite  unusual.  The  Minis- 
ter of  War  then  resigned,  but  in  the  month  of  May  follow- 
ing, in  the  discussion  of  the  estimates  of  the  Department 
of  Finance,  he  attacked  the  prime  mmister,  demanding  full 
explanation  of  the  reasons  for  the  letter  inviting  him  to 
resign  ;  and  upon  Mr.  Lafayette  replying  to  him,  a  scene 
of  uproar  ensued  in  Avhich  assertions  of  both  sides  were 
contradicted,  and  finally  the  lie  was  exchanged  between 
the  two  disputants,  when  Mr.  Kodrigues,  Jr.,  declared  that 
Mr.  Lafayette  had  acted  with  injustice  and  discourtesy, 
disloyalty  and  perfidy,  and  had  sent  the  Minister  of  Justice 
to  try  and  substitute  another  note  for  the  letter,  promising 
to  do  anything  he  wished  for  Ceara.  This  the  Minister 
of  Justice  denied. 

As  showing  what  part  the  Emperor  takes  in  forming 
Cabinets,  the  regard  that  is  paid  to  thorough  publicity  in 
such  matters,  and  as  illustrating  also  the  style  of  expres- 
sion of  Brazilian  statesmen,  I  will  here  copy  a  short  report 
of  what  was  said  in  the  Senate  at  the  accession  of  the  Dan- 
tas  ministry,  June  9, 1884,  it  being  substantially  the  trans- 
lation published  in  the  "Anglo-Brazilian  Times."  Mr. 
Lafayette  Eodrigues  Pereira — jurist,  senator  from  the 
province  of  Minas-Geraes,  and  prime  minister  of  the  out- 
going Cabinet— said :  "  In  view  of  what  occurred  on  the 
3d  instant  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  Cabinet  of  May 
24th  became  convinced  that  they  had  not  the  necessary 
parliamentary  strength  to  continue  to  direct  the  public 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  201 

affairs  and  to  cany  out  tlie  ideas  of  their  programme  of 
government.  Consequently,  I  went  the  same  evening  to 
the  palace,  and  in  the  name  of  myself  and  my  colleagues, 
alleging  the  above  reason,  I  asked  his  Majesty  the  Em- 
peror to  be  pleased  to  accept  our  resignation.  His  Ma- 
jesty consenting,  asked  whom  I  indicated  to  undertake  to 
form  a  new  ministry,  and  on  my  mentioning  Senator  Jose 
Antonio  Saraiva,  commanded  me  to  invite  Mr.  Saraiva  to 
come  to  the  palace  that  same  night.  This  command  was 
obeyed  at  8.30  r.  m." 

Senator  Saraiva :  "  On  the  3d,  at  9  p.  m.,  I  was  invited 
by  Conselheiro  Lafayette,  by  command  of  the  Emperor,  to 
go  to  the  palace.  On  arriving  there,  his  Majesty  said  to 
me  that  Conselheiro  Lafayette  had  indicated  me  as  suc- 
cessor, and  his  Majesty  having  received  the  suggestion 
with  pleasure,  was  desirous  that  I  should  form  the  new 
ministry.  I  replied  to  his  Majesty  that  the  reasons  still 
subsisted  that  prevented  my  undertaking  in  1883  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  government,  namely,  that  I  had  no  cer- 
tainty of  being  able  to  form  a  strong  and  durable  ministry, 
capable  of  deciding  or  carrying  forward  toward  a  satis- 
factory solution  grave  questions  agitated  both  in  and  out 
of  Parliament,  such  as  the  slave  question.  His  Majesty 
said  that  he  considered  it  his  duty  to  do  all  that  was  possi- 
ble to  render  the  approaching  elections  of  deputies  most 
regular ;  that  he  had  entire  confidence  in  me,  and  as  I  did 
not  hold  extreme  opinions  I  could  direct  the  slave  ques- 
tion to  a  solution  that  would  not  compromise  the  great 
economic  interests  of  the  country ;  that  consequently  he 
must  insist  upon  my  forming  the  new  administration.  I 
then  observed  to  his  Majesty  that  both  the  constitutional 
parties  were  interested  in  complete  liberty  of  the  elections ; 
that  the  leaders  of  those  parties  could  carry  out  the  ele- 


202     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

vated  and  patriotic  idea  his  Majesty  had  so  much  at  heart, 
were  it  only  because  those  leaders  were  perfectly  aware 
that  a  return  to  the  old  system  of  direct  or  indirect  gov- 
ernment interference  in  the  elections  would  considerably 
reduce  the  influence  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  upon 
the  constitution  of  ministries ;  that,  as  the  Liberal  party 
had  fought  during  ten  years  of  opposition  for  freedom  of 
vote  and  had  made  a  law  to  insure  that  freedom,  it  could 
not,  under  penalty  of  becoming  unpopular,  fail  to  do 
honor  to  the  programme  that  had  raised  it  to  power.  I 
added  that,  owing  to  the  declarations  I  made  in  1880  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  I  could  not  assume  the  respon- 
sibility of  power  without  treating  specially  of  the  slave 
question,  but  that  I  could  not  at  present  form  a  ministry 
that  would  be  homogeneous  in  regard  to. this  matter,  and 
which,  because  of  its  homogeneity,  could  exert  an  effica- 
cious influence  upon  the  Liberal  party ;  finally,  that  with- 
out the  strong  support  of  its  party  no  government  could 
have  any  certainty  of  a  good  result,  even  though  the  pre- 
dominating idea  were  a  national  aspiration.  This  is  more 
or  less  what  passed  between  his  Majesty  the  Emperor 
and  myself." 

Senator  Dantas :  "  On  the  4:th  instant  the  honorable 
ex-President  of  the  Council  came  to  me  to  deliver  to  me 
his  Majesty's  command  to  appear  at  the  Sao  Christovao 
Palace  at  6  p.  m.  of  the  same  day.  At  the  hour  fixed  I 
presented  myself  at  the  palace,  and,  on  being  admitted  to 
his  Majesty's  presence,  he  deigned  to  consult  mo  upon 
various  points,  especially  in  regard  to  the  ministerial 
ciisis  on  the  3d.  AVith  tlie  loyalty  due  to  the  chief  of 
the  state,  I  furnished  all  the  information  I  could,  and  at 
the  same  time  gave  my  humble  opinion  upon  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  occasion.    Thus  closed  the  audience  with  which 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  203 

his  Majesty  honored  me.  About  midnight  of  the  same 
day  I  was  again  sought  by  the  ex-President  of  the  Coun- 
cil, who,  by  command  of  his  Majesty  the  Emperor,  in- 
vited me  to  appear  at  the  palace  at  10  a.  m.  of  the  next 
day.  Having  punctually  obeyed  this  command,  his  Ma- 
jesty deigned  to  tell  me  that  he  had  resolved  on  intrust- 
ing me  with  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry.  "With  due 
reverence  I  stated  to  his  Majesty  my  reasons  for  declin- 
ing so  great  an  honor.  His  Majesty  insisted  again,  but  I 
persisted  in  justifying  the  grounds  of  my  excuse.  Fi- 
nally, as  his  Majesty  gave  favorable  acceptance  to  the 
terms  which  I  thought  would  authorize  me  to  undertake 
the  ministerial  organization,  I  obeyed  the  command,  in 
the  conviction  that  thereby  I  also  obeyed  a  great  and  im- 
perative duty  in  the  grave  circumstances  in  which  my 
services  were  considered  useful  to  the  public  cause.  On 
retiring  from  Sao  Christovao,  I  undertook  at  once  to  come 
to  an  understanding  with  different  political  friends,  and, 
returning  at  night  to  the  palace,  I  presented  the  names  of 
the  distinguished  citizens  who  constitute  the  present 
Cabinet.  I  must  now  state  to  the  Senate  the  programme 
that  the  ministry  has  adopted  and  proposes  to  carry  out. 
Mr.  President,  among  the  various  questions  that  press 
upon  the  attention  and  study  of  the  Government,  there 
are  two  that  at  present  dominate  all  the  rest :  that  of  the 
finances  and  that  of  slavery.  The  ministry  think  it  a 
duty  to  explain  themselves  upon  both  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  render  their  views  evident,  with  the  object  of  defin- 
ing their  responsibility  before  the  country  as  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  Government  intend  to  treat  both.  The 
absence  of  equihbrium  between  the  public  revenue  and 
expenditure  is  known,  and  the  illustrious  ex-Minister  of 
Finance  demonstrated  it  completely  in  his  report  to  the 


204:     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

General  Assembly.  Unfortunately,  the  evil  is  one  of 
years  of  duration,  and,  without  treating  now  of  its  cause, 
I  will  simply  mention  the  fact  for  the  purpose  of  saying 
that  it  is  urgent  to  adopt  efficacious  and  persevering 
measures  to  remove  it  as  soon  as  possible.  First,  it  im- 
poses on  the  Government  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  rigor- 
ous observance  of  the  estimates  and  the  strictest  oversight 
of  the  collection  of  our  revenue ;  and,  lastly,  an  intelligent 
and  severe  reduction  of  the  expense,  as  much  as  we  can 
without  injury  to  the  necessary  improvements  that  have 
already  been  commenced  and  are  in  execution.  The  Gov- 
ernment, however,  beheves  that  in  our  present  circum- 
stances these  measures,  though  what  economic  and  finan- 
cial science  usually  counsels  for  such  cases,  will  not  suffice 
us.  We  must,  and  we  pledge  ourselves  to  this  also,  di- 
minish our  responsibilities  as  much  as  possible,  as  a  means 
of  strengthening  the  public  credit,  availing  of  this  credit 
less  and  less,  to  maintain  its  vigor,  until  now  intact.  Fi- 
nally, we  must  confess,  we  shall  have  to  resort  to  some 
other  means  of  enlarging  the  revenue,  and  as  to  this  we 
will  adopt  as  a  basis  the  idea  of  the  bill  reported  by  the 
committee  on  estimates,  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
both  as  to  the  creation  of  certain  taxes  and  as  to  the  con- 
version of  the  funded  internal  debt." 

It  will  strike  almost  any  one,  I  think,  that  the  ''  effica- 
cious and  persevering  measures"  for  improving  the 
finances,  which  the  ministry  thought  it  their  duty  to  ex- 
plain in  such  a  manner  as  "  to  render  their  views  evident," 
are  very  vaguely  stated.  These  generalities  were  scarce 
any  improvement  on  what  several  of  his  predecessors  had 
uttered  on  entering  upon  the  same  office.  The  following 
views  which  he  delivered  on  the  slavery  question  are 
more  definite,  though  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  propos- 


PARLIAMENTAKY  GOVERNMENT.  205 

ing  the  liberation  of  slaves  upward  of  sixty  years  of  age, 
he  omits  to  say  whether  or  not  the  owners  are  to  be  re- 
munerated : 

"  I  must  nov/  declare  tlie  views  of  the  Cabinet  upon  the 
slave  question.  We  have  arrived,  Mr.  President,  at  a 
point  where  the  Government  ought  to  intervene  most 
seriously  in  the  progressive  solution  of  this  problem,  and 
bring  it  frankly  before  the  Parliament,  which  has  to  pro- 
vide the  solution.  In  this  matter  no  retrocession,  no  stop- 
ping, no  precipitation.  It  is,  therefore,  the  special  pur- 
pose of  the  Government  to  give  movement  to  this  ques- 
tion, both  in  satisfaction  to  generous  sentiments  and 
humanitarian  aspirations  and  in  homage  to  the  vested 
rights  of  property  involved  in  it,  and  to  the  greater  in- 
terests of  the  country  dependent  on  that  agricultural 
wealth  which,  unfortunately,  is  still  linked  most  intimately 
with  this  anomalous  institution.  It  is  the  imperative 
duty  of  the  Government  and  legislature  to  fix  the  line 
to  which  prudence  permits  and  civilization  obliges  us  to 
advance,  so  that  it  will  become  possible  to  prevent  law- 
lessness and  excess  that  compromise  the  solution  of  the 
problem  without  advancing  it.  For  this  purpose  the 
Government  considers  it  indispensable  to  adopt  a  general 
measure  that  shall  establish  throughout  the  country  that 
provincial  localization  of  the  slaves  which  has  already 
made  progress  in  provincial  legislation.  This,  however, 
is  not  sufficient.  The  emancipation  fund  works  now 
within  a  very  limited  sphere,  and  the  Government  will 
promote  a  powerful  measure  to  increase  it  to  great  di- 
mensions. I  refer  to  a  national  tax,  one  which  will  call 
upon  all,  not  merely  the  slave-owners,  to  contribute  to  the 
extinction  of  slavery.  Another  measure  which  the  Gov- 
ernment considers  equitable  and  opportune  is  the  libera- 
ls 


206      BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tion  of  the  slaves  who  have  reached  or  will  reach  sixty- 
years  of  age.  The  powerful  reasons  supporting  this  meas- 
ure, one  that  would  do  honor  to  the  philanthropic  disposi- 
tion of  Brazihans,  need  not  be  mentioned  now,  and  the 
Government  will  reserve  them  for  the  debate  on  the  bill 
that  will  be  submitted  to  you." 

After  referring  to  some  other  subjects  upon  which  the 
Government  would  propose  legislation,  including  that  of 
civil  marriage,  he  continued  :  "  At  the  moment  when  the 
present  ministry  commence  their  administration,  little  or 
no  time  separates  us  from  the  elections  (of  deputies). 
The  Cabinet  consider  it  a  duty  to  declare  to  you  that  if 
thej  continue  in  the  direction  of  aSairs  they  will  maintain 
entire  neutrality  in  the  struggle,  thus  honoring  the  pre- 
cedent established  by  the  Cabinet  of  March  28th.  By 
themselves  and  by  their  appointees  in  the  provinces  they 
will  not  fail  to  repress  fraud  and  violence,  in  order  that 
the  election  may  be  true  and  free,  leaving  it  to  the  ac- 
count of  the  parties  and  their  leaders — conquer  who  con- 
quers. The  wisdom  of  the  Senate  will  assist  me,  I  hope, 
in  the  difficult  path  I  must  follow." 

Senator  Correia,  one  of  the  Conservative  leaders,  then 
criticised  the  declarations  which  had  been  made;  he 
wished  to  know  what  the  conditions  were  which  the  new 
prime  minister  considered  as  justifying  his  acceptance  of 
office ;  also  what  passed  at  the  audiences  with  the  Emperor 
of  Senators  Sinimbd  and  Affonso  Celso. 

Senator  Sinimbu  said  that  he  recognized  the  right  of 
the  Chambers  to  know  what  passed  between  the  Crown 
and  those  called  upon  to  inform  upon  public  affairs,  but 
judged  it  proper  to  allow  the  ex-President  of  the  Council 
and  the  present  President  of  the  Council  to  previously 
make  their  declarations.    Invited  on  the  4th  to  the  palace, 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  207 

he  was  asked  by  his  Majesty  for  his  opinion  upon  the 
causes  of  the  crisis  and  upon  the  slave  question ;  that  he 
replied  that  the  crisis  had  been  caused  chiefly  by  the 
affair  of  October  25th  (what  he  means  by  the  affair  of 
October  25th  was  the  assassination  of  the  editor  of  a  scur- 
rilous newspaper  by  alleged  undetected  mihtary  officers), 
by  the  process  adopted  for  the  conversion  of  the  monastic 
property,  by  the  official  assent  to  the  irregular  manner  in 
which  the  Ceara  emancipation  had  been  effected,  and  to 
the  initiation  of  a  like  movement  in  other  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  by  the  unusual  manner  in  which  the  minis- 
terial change  of  February  29th  had  been  effected ;  that 
under  the  circumstances  the  most  convenient  solution  of 
the  crisis  would  be  the  formation  of  a  Cabinet  able  to  re- 
unite the  party  and  relieve  the  Conservatives  of  their  fears 
of  interference  with  the  approaching  elections ;  that  this 
solution  was  not  beyond  the  power  of  the  Liberal  party, 
and  that  all  would  hail  the  accession  of  Mr.  Saraiva ;  that 
he  did  not  consider  the  occasion  proper  for  a  dissolution 
of  a  Chamber  freely  elected,  as  was  generally  aclmowl- 
edged ;  that  as  to  slavery  he  still  maintained  the  opinion 
declared  at  the  Agricultural  Congress,  namely,  execution 
of  the  law  of  September  28,  1871,  with  the  development 
it  is  susceptible  of." 

Senator  Affonso  Celso  said  that  he  had  also  received 
on  the  4th  a  similar  command  to  go  to  the  palace,  but  at 
a  later  hour ;  that  it  was  enough  for  him  to  say  that  his 
opinion  on  the  crisis  and  on  the  slave  question  was,  he 
was  glad  to  find,  identical  with  that  expressed  by  Mr. 
Sinimbti,  as  just  stated  to  the  Senate.  He  would  merely 
add  that  in  regard  to  slavery,  along  with  guarantee  of  the 
property  recognized  by  law,  and  the  personal  security  of 
the  owners,  it  would  be  requisite  that  the  new  Cabinet 


208     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

sliould  give  a  greater  impulse  to  the  too  slow  emancipat- 
ing movement  of  the  law  of  September  28,  1871,  by  in- 
creasing the  emancipation  fund,  and  by  adopting  other 
measures  to  make  it  more  effective.  He  had,  however, 
declared  to  his  Majesty  that  acceleration  of  the  emancipa- 
tory movement,  as  well  as  other  measures  of  great  impor- 
tance to  the  future  of  the  country,  were  bound  up  in  the 
improvement  of  the  financial  situation,  and  that  this  im- 
provement was  the  first  thing  to  be  undertaken.  In  fact, 
he  thought  material  improvements,  transformation  of  la- 
bor, reform  of  the  administration,  reconstruction  of  the 
state  patrimonies,  of  the  provinces,  of  the  municipalities, 
redemption  of  the  paper  money,  order,  plenty,  and  progress 
in  the  interior,  confidence  and  credit  abroad,  can  not  be 
thought  of  by  a  statesman  while  the  rule  of  permanent 
deficits  exists,  together  with  the  system  of  contracting 
new  loans  to  pay  the  interest  of  old  ones ;  that,  there- 
fore, one  of  the  greatest  aims  of  the  new  Cabinet  should 
be  to  endeavor  to  render  the  public  finances  more  pros- 
perous. This  was  the  first  necessity,  the  fundamental  base, 
for  every  aspiration. 

It  was  immediately  after  this  that  Senator  Ottoni  de- 
livered his  interesting  and  important  speech,  liberal  ex- 
tracts from  which  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  slavery. 
Some  days  later  a  bill  was  introduced  by  the  ministry  for 
liberating  all  slaves  of  the  age  of  sixty  years  and  upward, 
but,  as  it  was  unaccompanied  by  any  provision  for  remu- 
nerating the  owners,  it  failed  to  receive  the  fuU  support 
of  the  Liberal  party ;  Deputy  Albuquerque,  who  had  been 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  Cabinet  preceding  the 
Lafayette  ministry,  being  on  that  ground  one  of  the  lead- 
ing opponents  of  it  in  the  Liberal  ranks.  The  new  Cabinet 
having  thus  experienced  a  defeat  on  a  vital  measure,  the 


PAKLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  209 

question  arose  whether  it  should  go  out  and  an  attempt 
be  made  to  form  a  Conservative  ministry,  or  whether,  as 
the  time  was  near  at  hand  for  a  new  Chamber  to  be  elected 
it  would  be  better  to  wait  the  result  of  that  election,  leav- 
ing the  Cabinet  meantime  unchanged.  The  latter  course 
was  adopted.  A  meeting  was  held  by  the  Grand  Council 
of  State,  and  by  its  advice  it  was  decided  to  dissolve  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies ;  but  this  was  not  done  till  after  the 
usual  appropriation  bills  were  passed,  by  which  time  the 
Chamber  had  sat  out  nearly  its  full  constitutional  time. 
During  the  ensuing  political  canvass  there  was  no  speech- 
making,  such  as  occurs  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States,  and  which  is  so  instructive  to  the  public  mind. 
The  Abolition  Society  of  Eio  de  Janeiro,  in  their  address  to 
the  electors,  September,  1884,  recommending  the  support 
of  Mr.  Jose  Carlos  do  Patrocinio  for  the  General  Assem- 
bly, declared  that,  limiting  their  aspirations  to  what  was 
lawful,  and  deriving  their  force  from  the  law,  they  directed 
their  efforts  to  the  solution  of  the  labor  problem,  endeav- 
oring to  substitute  the  man  for  the  slave,  and  liberty  for 
slavery.  Appealing,  they  said,  to  the  electoral  body  of 
the  capital  of  the  empire,  they  addressed  themselves  to 
the  most  enlightened  and  conscientious  who  exercise  sov- 
ereignty, but  also  knew  that  an  en-oneous  political  notion 
restricts  the  exercise  of  popular  sovereignty  in  such  a 
manner  that,  in  a  municipality  like  that  of  the  capital  of 
more  than  600,000  souls,  barely  6,T93  citizens  are  qualified 
voters,  being  in  the  ratio  of  one  elector  for  more  than  one 
hundred  inhabitants.  The  forms  of  the  electoral  organi- 
zation, they  declared,  have  resulted  in  the  continuance  of 
a  parliamentary  system  all  in  the  interest  of  caste  rather 
than  the  development  of  order  in  liberty,  the  stability  of 
institutions  in  respect  to  the  rights  of  man,  the  founda- 


210     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tion  of  public  wealth  on  tlie  most  fruitful  and  solid  of 
properties — the  property  of  labor. 

With  reference  to  the  Republican  party  in  Brazil, 
which  formerly,  it  would  seem,  was  stronger  than  it  is  at 
present,  Mr.  Jose  do  Patrocinio,  a  noted  abolitionist  and 
editor  of  the  evening  paper,  made  some  amusing  remarks 
in  a  pubhc  address  at  Rio,  September  7,  1884 ;  "  In  gen- 
eral," he  said,  "  the  proportion  of  deserters  in  any  party 
was  about  ten  per  cent ;  but,  in  respect  of  the  Republican 
party  in  Brazil,  it  was  different — the  faithful  constituted 
ten  per  cent,  and  the  deserters  ninety  per  cent ! " 

The  general  election  for  a  new  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
for  a  term  of  four  years,  commenced  in  December,  1884. 
I  say  commenced,  because  under  the  rule  requiring  the 
successful  candidate  to  have  a  majority  of  all  votes  cast, 
instead  of  a  plurality,  the  election  had  in  several  districts 
to  be  repeated  two  or  three  times.  There  was,  of  course, 
considerable  excitement,  some  fraud,  and  some  violence, 
but  it  struck  me  that  there  was  less  trouble  than  one  would 
naturally  suppose  under  all  the  circumstances.  Judging, 
however,  from  remarks  of  opposition  senators  and  depu- 
ties since  the  legislature  convened,  one  would  think  that 
the  elections  were  attended  with  an  unprecedented  degree 
of  rascality  and  violence.  That  a  few  people  were  killed, 
and  that  there  was  some  fraudulent  voting,  might  have 
been  expected ;  and  such  were  the  facts.  It  is  a  signifi- 
cant fact  that  no  certain  knowledge  of  the  political  result 
of  the  election,  as  bearing  on  the  ministry's  plan  of  Hber- 
ation,  could  be  known  till  after  the  meeting  of  the  newly 
elected  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  March,  1885. 

This  extra  session  of  the  General  Assembly  was  opened 
by  the  Emperor  in  the  Senate-chamber  on  Sunday,  March 
8, 1885,  after  a  celebration  of  mass  at  the  Imperial  Chapel. 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  211 

Thougli  called  solely  for  the  settlement  of  some  scheme 
of  emancipation,  the  subject  was  treated  in  the  speech 
read  by  the  Emperor  only  in  these  few  general  words, 
namely :  "  The  present  extra  session  was  advised  by  the 
need,  which  certainly  you  will  meet  with  the  greatest 
solicitude,  of  deciding  in  regard  to  the  project  which  the 
Government  judges  useful  for  the  gradual  extinction  of 
slavery  in  our  country,  agreeably  to  the  desire  of  all  Bra- 
zilians, in  a  way  that  will  cause  the  least  possible  sacrifice, 
and  without  interfering  with  the  development  of  the  pro- 
ductive forces  of  the  nation." 

The  Emperor  comes  in  considerable  state  to  open  the 
General  Assembly,  and  yet  in  a  simple  manner  as  com- 
pared with  the  usage  of  some  European  sovereigns,  who  en- 
ter the  hall  of  state  wearing  a  crown  and  royal  robes,  with 
a  brilliant  escort  of  soldiers  and  civil  and  military  officers 
richly  uniformed,  and  moving  to  martial  music,  the  throne 
meantime  being  densely  surrounded  by  officers  of  the  life- 
guards. His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  wearing  a 
uniform,  drives  to  the  Senate  in  his  usual  carriage,  drawn 
by  six  horses,  with  a  mounted  escort,  and  is  received  at 
the  outer  door  by  a  joint  committee  of  the  Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  On  the  occasion  of  the  opening 
of  this  extra  session  the  two  bodies  in  joint  assembly  ap- 
pointed twenty-four  deputies  and  twelve  senators  to  meet 
the  Emperor  at  the  door  and  conduct  him  to  the  throne. 
Four  deputies  and  two  senators  were  likewise  appointed 
to  meet  the  Empress  and  conduct  her  to  her  place  in  the 
imperial  gallery. 

On  March  12th  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  proceeded 
to  elect  a  presiding  officer,  selecting  for  this  purpose  Mr. 
Moreira  de  Barros,  the  head  of  the  Liberal  opposition  of 
about  twelve  members,  with  the  aid  of  Conservative  votes ; 


212     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

but,  as  there  were  some  forty  deputies  who  could  not  vote 
because  their  credentials  had  not  been  decided  upon,  the 
prime  minister  (Liberal)  declared  in  the  Senate  that  such 
vote  could  not  under  the  circumstances  be  accepted  as  a 
ministerial  defeat.  With  reference  to  this  proceeding  the 
"  Paiz  "  newspaper  said,  "  One  half  the  country,  which  is 
still  outside  the  legislature  "  (referring  to  those  members 
whose  credentials  were  not  acted  upon),  "  can  not  logically 
be  subjected  to  the  decision  of  any  minority  whose  mem- 
bers are  already  recognized  as  deputies."  With  reference 
to  the  way  in  which  business  was  held  in  check  in  both 
branches  of  the  legislature  the  first  part  of  the  extra  ses- 
sion of  1885,  pending  the  decision  of  so  many  contested 
election  cases,  a  Rio  journal  said :  "  That  ten  dissatisfied 
Liberal  members  of  the  Chamber,  acting  in  connection 
with  their  political  opponents,  could  so  completely  succeed 
in  obstructing  parliamentary  work  needs  explanation.  The 
cause  seems  to  us  to  be  found  in  the  last  electoral  law,  and 
the  effect  only  to  be  removed  by  such  a  modification  of 
this  law  as  will  greatly  increase  the  suffrage,  to  the  end 
that  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  may  more  nearly  represent 
the  country,  and  not  that  very  small  section  of  it  which  it 
now  represents.  .  .  .  A  sincere  observer  of  political  affairs 
in  Brazil  can  not  claim  that  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as 
at  present  constituted  represents  the  public  opinion  of  the 
empire.  The  manner  in  which  deputies  are  elected  proves 
the  contrary.  The  practice  is  for  the  candidate  to  issue  a 
circular  to  the  electors  of  the  district  he  wishes  to  repre- 
sent, and  if  possible  secure  some  indorsement  of  his  pre- 
tensions by  the  chiefs  of  his  party;  then  personal  visits  to 
local  magnates  are  made,  and  if  their  support  be  secured, 
the  candidate  may  calmly  and  confidently  await  the  re- 
sult.   There  is  no  personal  contact  with  the  great  mass  of 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  213 

the  people,  no  speech-maldng,  or  attempts  at  raising  en- 
thusiasm ;  the  election  canvass  is  generally  as  flat  as  possi- 
ble, and  when  disturbances  occur  the  cause  can  generally 
be  found  in  the  enmity  of  local  chiefs,  and  the  actors  are 
their  personal  followers.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a 
candidate  for  a  district  in  the  north,  or  in  the  interior,  to 
remain  in  Rio  during  the  time  that  would  be  employed 
in  England  or  in  the  United  States  in  actively  canvassing 
his  proposed  constituency.  How  can  it  be  claimed  that  a 
deputy,  for  example,  from  Para  who  has  never  left  this 
capital  can  represent  the  public  opinion  of  his  district, 
which  opinion  he  has  only  heard  by  proxy ;  and  how  can 
the  electors  of  that  district  know  anything  of  his  opinions 
save  from  his  circular  and  the  indorsements  of  personal 
and  political  friends  and  relatives  ?  .  .  .  Another  proof  of 
our  argument  is  shown  by  the  professions  of  the  deputies. 
Whereas  the  House  of  Commons  is  to  a  large  extent 
composed  of  merchants,  bankers,  and  manufacturers,  our 
Chamber  is  almost  exclusively  formed  of  lawyers,  with  an 
occasional  medical  man,  and  a  rare  planter,  unless  in  com- 
bination with  the  lawyer.  .  .  .  There  must  be  unprofes- 
sional men  who  are  sufficiently  interested  in  commerce 
and  trade  to  offer  themselves  as  candidates,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  a  few  such  into  the  composition  of  the  Cham- 
ber could  not  but  be  attended  with  advantage.  Politics 
is  made  entirely  too  much  a  means  of  support,  and,  the 
same  members  being  returned  again  and  again,  political 
cabals  are  easily  brought  about,  and  personal  questions 
quite  as  frequently  cause  the  fall  of  a  ministry  as  politi- 
cal, economic,  or  other  principles.  We  think  an  extension 
of  the  suffrage  would  go  far  to  correct  the  present  unfor- 
tunate state  of  affairs." 

The  foregoing,  together  with  what  is  found  in  the 


214     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

chapter  on  slavery,  will  enable  one  to  form  a  fair  judg- 
ment of  tlie  political  situation  and  of  the  practice  of  poli- 
tics in  Brazil.  It  will  be  seen  that  parliamentary  govern- 
ment is  there  carried  on  mth  as  much  ability  and  fairness 
as  it  is  in  some  European  countries.  Some  things  un- 
doubtedly are  to  be  deplored.  An  ex- Cabinet  minister 
said  to  an  acquaintance  of  mine,  at  Rio,  "  I  would  sooner 
bury  my  son  than  to  bring  him  up  in  politics."  His 
opinion  was  formed  doubtless  by  the  ups  and  downs — the 
uncertainty — as  well  as  by  the  intrigue  and  corruption 
there  are  in  politics.  The  Brazilians  feel  that  they  have 
a  tremendously  great  country,  and  one  which  has  a  sj)len- 
did  destiny.  They  are  proud  of  it,  and  will  not  permit  it  to 
fall  into  too  much  discredit.  The  honors  which  in  a  par- 
liamentary system  await  a  high  order  of  statesmanship  are 
healthy  incentives,  and  I  believe  the  tendency  in  Brazil  is 
toward  improvement  under  her  present  system. 

The  return  of  the  adjutant  -  general  of  the  army 
shows  that  the  aggregate  number  of  officers  and  enHsted 
men  is  13,764,  being  the  military  strength  of  the  country 
on  a  peace  basis.  It  consists,  in  round  numbers,  of  3,000 
artillery,  2,500  cavalry,  and  8,000  infantry,  and  is  widely 
detached  in  the  different  provinces.  The  principal  de- 
tachment, comprising  4,000  men,  under  a  general  officer, 
is  stationed  in  the  province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  which 
borders  the  Republic  of  Uruguay ;  about  2,000  men  are 
stationed  in  the  frontier  province  of  Matto-Grosso ;  1,000 
in  the  province  of  Pernambuco ;  600  in  the  province  of 
Pard;  about  the  same  number  in  each  of  the  provinces  of 
Bahia  and  Parand,  and  about  3,000  at  the  capital — each 
detachment  being  under  the  command  of  a  general  officer. 
In  the  other  provinces  there  are  detachments  which  are 
under  the  command  of  the  respective  presidents.    The 


PARLIAMENTARY  GOVERNMENT.  215 

enlisted  men  of  the  army  are  all  volunteers,  wlio  liave  en- 
gaged to  serve  for  a  term  of  six  years.  Their  pay  is  only 
about  two  dollars  a  month,  besides  board  and  clothing.  A 
law  was  passed  ten  years  ago  making  military  service  for 
eight  years  obligatory  on  males  between  eighteen  and 
thirty  years  of  age — the  requisite  number  to  be  drawn  by 
lot.  As  yet,  however,  it  has  not  been  found  necessary  to 
enforce  it.  The  annual  military  expenses  amount  to  six 
million  dollars. 

Brazil  is  rather  liberal  in  her  system  of  military  pen- 
sions. Those  who  received  wounds  or  injuries  to  health 
in  the  Paraguayan  war,  as  well  as  the  widows,  children,  or 
sisters  of  those  who  were  killed,  receive  an  allowance  of 
six  dollars  and  upward  a  month.  The  widow  of  an  officer 
killed  in  war  would  now  receive  a  pension  equal  to  his 
full  pay.  Where  there  are  male  children,  but  not  a  widow, 
they  would  receive  the  pension  till  they  were  of  age ;  and 
a  daughter,  if  an  only  child,  and  the  mother  not  living, 
would  receive  the  full  pension  during  her  life,  whether 
married  or  single.  So,  also,  officers  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  war,  though  never  wounded,  receive  a 
pension  in  some  cases  as  high  as  twenty-five  hundred  dol- 
lars a  year. 

A  commission,  of  which  his  Eoyal  Highness  Count 
d'Eu  was  president,  and  the  adjutant -general,  quarter- 
master-general, and  three  other  general  officers  were  mem- 
bers, was  appointed  two  years  ago  to  elaborate  a  plan  of 
army  organization  in  accord  with  improvements  intro- 
duced into  modem  armies,  and  which  would  be  suitable 
for  Biazil.  The  plan  they  reported  contemplates  an  ag- 
gregate force,  in  time  of  peace,  of  1,129  commissioned 
officers  and  15,000  enlisted  men,  and  which  in  time  of 
war  could  be  increased  to  an  army  of  30,000  men. 


CHAPTEE  XIY. 

BRAZILIAN   LITEEATUEE. 

As  the  language  of  Brazil  is  the  Portuguese,  a  few  re- 
marks in  regard  to  it  may  serve  as  a  suitable  introduction 
to  a  sketch  of  Brazilian  literature.  The  Portuguese  lan- 
guage, like  the  Spanish,  is  founded  on  the  Latin.  This  is 
evident  from  the  many  Latin  words  still  in  use  in  the  lan- 
guage, even  if  there  were  no  historical  proofs  of  the  fact. 
Prof.  Ticknor,  in  his  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature," 
points  out  that  Christianity,  beginning  as  early  at  least  as 
the  second  century,  was  introduced  into  the  peninsula, 
comprising  Spain  and  Portugal,  in  the  Latin  language. 
That  fact,  he  says,  is  very  important,  as  showing  that  no 
other  language  was  left  strong  enough  to  contend  with  it, 
at  least  through  the  middle  and  southern  portions  of  the 
country.  The  Christian  clergy,  however,  he  says,  ad- 
dressed themselves  for  a  long  period  to  the  lower  and 
more  ignorant  classes  of  society,  because  the  refined  and 
the  powerful  refused  to  listen  to  them,  and  therefore 
used  the  degraded  Latin  which  the  common  people  spoke. 
He  is  of  the  opinion  that  "the  modem  languages  and 
their  dialects  in  the  south  of  Europe  were,  so  far  as  the 
Latin  was  concerned,  formed  out  of  the  popular  and  vul- 
gar Latin  found  in  the  mouths  of  the  common  people ; 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  217 

and  tliat  Christianity,  more  than  any  single  cause,  was  the 
medium  and  means  by  which  this  change  from  one  to  the 
other  was  brought  about."  The  Portuguese  language  re- 
ceived additions  and  modifications  by  the  invasion  of  the 
Goths  in  the  fifth  century  and  of  the  Arabs  in  the  eighth 
century,  but  still  retains  distinctive  Latin  characteristics. 
There  are  so  many  words  in  common  use,  in  the  Portu- 
guese, like  the  Latin,  that  it  does  not  require  a  great 
stretch  of  the  imagination  to  fancy  that  the  people  one 
sees  and  hears  in  Brazil  are  descendants  of  an  ancient 
Latin  race,  and  speak  a  language  that  could  almost  have 
been  understood  by  the  every-day  people  in  the  time  and 
country  of  Horace.  The  similarity  of  the  architecture  of 
Rio,  especially  of  the  shops,  with  what  is  seen  in  the  re- 
mains of  the  old  Roman  cities,  makes  the  idea  seem  not 
unreasonable.  Of  course,  from  my  limited  acquaintance 
with  the  Portuguese  language,  I  would  not  presume,  un- 
aided, to  give  a  sketch  of  Brazilian  literature ;  and  most 
of  the  matter  which  follows  in  this  chapter  has  been  sup- 
plied by  Mr.  Shalders,  a  conscientious  and  talented  gradu- 
ate of  one  of  Brazil's  highest  institutions  of  learning. 

Among  Brazilian  authors  probably  Jose  Martiniano  de 
Alencar,  Bernardo  Guimaraes,  and  J.  M.  de  Macedo,  by 
general  consent,  occupy  the  prominent  places.  The  first- 
named  belonged  to  the  present  era,  and  composed  about 
thirty  works  of  fiction,  of  which  "  Iracema "  and  "  Gua- 
rany "  are  regarded  as  the  best.  He  was  born  at  Ceard, 
northern  Brazil,  May  1,  1829,  and  his  early  childhood 
was  there  spent.  At  the  age  of  ten  his  family  moved  to 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  maldng  the  very  long  journey  thither  by 
land.  At  Rio  he  received  his  first  scholastic  training, 
after  which  he  studied  law  at  the  Sao  Paulo  and  Ohnda 
schools,  graduating  at  the  latter  in  1851.  Returning  to 
19 


218     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITIOIT  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Eio,  lie  there  spent  the  rest  of  his  life,  following  during  the 
first  four  years  the  profession  of  lawyer.  His  early  ardent 
desire  of  becoming  an  editor  was  satisfied  on  his  becoming 
proprietor  and  editor  of  the  "  Diario  do  Kio " ;  here  he 
began  to  pubhsh  his  first  writings,  entitled  "  Ao  Correr  da 
Penna"  ("  The  Kunning  of  the  Pen  "),  on  various  topics, 
which  soon  attracted  and  fixed  the  attention  of  the  pubhc. 
About  this  time  Gongalves  Magalhaes  published  his  "  Con- 
federagao  dos  Tamoyos,"  a  work  which  incited  Alencar's 
ambition.  Alencdr  became  Professor  of  Mercantile  Law 
in  the  Commercial  Institute  of  Eio,  was  deputy  in  the 
General  Assembly  in  several  legislatures.  Counselor  of 
the  Ministry  of  Justice,  and,  later  on.  Minister  of  Justice, 
He  died  December  12,  ISTT",  at  a  house  in  Eua  Guana- 
bara,  which  he  had  selected  in  search  of  better  atmos- 
phere. The  historical  groundwork  of  his  "Iracema"is 
substantially  this :  "  In  1603  Pero  Coelbo  started  from 
Parahyba  with  eighty  colonists  and  eight  hundred  Indians, 
and  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Jaguaribe,  and  there 
founded  a  colony,  the  first  in  the  province  of  Ceard. 
Pero  Coelho,  having  been  abandoned  by  his  comj)anions, 
Joao  Soromenho  was  sent  to  his  help,  which  latter  having 
arrived  at  the  place,  began  to  attack  the  Indians,  who  were 
friends  of  the  Portuguese.  This  ruined  the  recent  colony ; 
the  colonists  were  forced  to  withdraw  on  account  of  the 
hostilities  of  the  Indians,  and  Pero  Coelho  was  oblioced  to 
retire  to  Parahyba.  In  the  first  expedition  a  young  man 
named  Martim  Soares  Moreno  formed  a  friendship  with 
Jacatina,  chief  of  the  Indians  of  the  coast,  and  with  his 
brother  Poty.  Later  on  this  Martim,  having  established  a 
colony  there,  Jacatina  came  with  his  people  to  live  in  the 
neighborhood  in  order  to  protect  the  Portuguese  from  the 
Indians  of  the  interior.     "  Iracema  "  is  a  poem  in  prose. 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  219 

The  scene  lies  in  tlie  interior  of  Ceara  among  the  Indians 
first  among  those  who  are  enemies  of  the  coast  Indians, 
and  toward  the  end  among  the  latter.  Martim  is  the  hero. 
The  legend  runs  thns :  Martim  finds  himself  lost  in  the 
woods,  when  suddenly  he  is  in  the  presence  of  an  Indian 
girl  of  the  Tabayara  race,  enemy  to  that  of  the  coast. 
The  girl  shoots  an  arrow  which  strikes  Martim  on  the 
forehead,  but,  repenting  immediately  of  her  deed,  she 
runs  to  him,  dresses  the  wound,  and  conducts  him  to  the 
cabin  of  her  father,  who  is  the  chief  of  the  tribe.  Martim 
is  treated  by  the  chief  with  hospitality,  and  stays  at  his 
house  a  long  time,  acquires  the  fame  of  a  great  warrior, 
and  falls  in  love  with  the  girl,  or  rather  she  with  him. 
The  principal  warrior  of  the  tribe  becomes  enraged  with 
him  on  that  account,  from  being  in  love  with  the  girl 
himself ;  he  requires  of  the  chief  that  Martim  should  be 
given  over  to' his  vengeance ;  Martim  is  discovered  by  his 
friend  Poty  and  flees — the  two  being  escorted  by  the  In- 
dian girl,  who  is  named  Iracema.  Once  outside  her  father's 
domains,  she  declares  that  she  will  not  leave  Martim. 
A  war  then  ensues  between  the  Tabayaras  and  Mai-tim's 
friends,  in  which  Iracema  shows  herself  a  heroine  in  sav- 
ing Martim's  life.  Finally,  Martim  begins  to  grow  cold 
toward  Iracema  from  his  longings  to  go  back  to  his  peo- 
ple ;  he  absents  himself  for  some  time,  and  when  he  re- 
turns to  Iracema  he  finds  her  languishing  away ;  she  has 
barely  strength  to  lift  her  child  up  to  Martim's  arms,  and 
then  faints  and  dies. 

The  following,  describing  this  tragic  end,  is  perhaps 
the  most  touching  passage  in  the  poem : 

"The  Christian  moved  with  uncertain  steps.  Sud- 
denly, among  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  his  eyes  beheld,  sit- 
ting at  the  door  of  the  cabin,  Iracema  with  her  child  at 


220     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

lier  breast,  and  the  dog  playing  at  her  side.  His  heart 
was  filled,  and  his  soul  would  start  to  his  lips— Iracema ! 
.  .  .  The  sad  mother  and  spouse  raised  her  eyes  at  hearing 
the  beloved  voice.  With  great  effort,  she  succeeded  in 
lifting  her  child  in  her  arms  and  presenting  it  to  its  father, 
who  contemplated  it  in  an  ecstasy  of  love.  'Keceive 
the  son  of  thy  blood.  It  is  time ;  my  ungrateful  breasts 
have  no  longer  nourishment  to  give  him ! '  Placing  the 
child  in  the  paternal  arms,  the  unfortunate  mother  fainted 
as  fades  the  jetyca  when  it  is  plucked.  The  husband  then 
saw  how  grief  had  caused  her  beautiful  body  to  fade ;  but 
still  beauty  was  in  her,  just  as  the  perfume  in  the  flower 
fallen  from  the  manaca.  Iracema  rose  no  more  from  the 
hammock  in  which  the  afflicted  arms  of  Martim  placed 
her.  The  loving  husband,  in  whom  affection  had  revived 
with  the  paternal  joy,  surrounded  her  with  affectionate 
cares,  which  filled  her  soul  with  delight,  but  restored  not 
life  to  her ;  her  bloom  had  passed. 

" '  Bury  the  remains  of  thy  wife  beside  the  cocoanut- 
tree  which  thou  lovedst.  "When  the  breeze  blows  through 
its  foliage,  Iracema  will  think  it  is  thy  voice  sounding  in 
her  hair.' 

"The  sweet  lips  were  silent  forever;  the  last  glow 
took  leave  of  the  dim  eyes. 

"  Poty  held  up  his  brother  in  his  great  sorrow." 

Alencdr's  "  Guarany  "  is  another  work  in  which  the 
principal  character  is  an  Indian  who  shows  great  devotion 
and  faithfulness  to  a  young  Portuguese  woman,  whom  he 
treated  as  his  mistress  and  for  whom  more  than  once  he 
risked  his  life.  Alencar  tried  to  form  in  romance  the 
same  school  which  Gongalves  Dias  wished  to  do  in  verse. 
Both  created  a  kind  of  native  style.  In  their  works  the 
principal  characters  are  native  Indians,  and  they  occupy 


BRAZILIAN   LITERATURE.  221 

themselves  with  their  language,  habits,  and  temperament. 
But  neither  of  these  two  authors  found  followers,  although 
their  works  arc  greatly  appreciated. 

Bernardo  Guimaraes  was  born  in  Ouro  Preto,  August 
15,  1825.  At  four  years  of  age  his  family  removed  to 
Uberaba,  where  he  received  his  primary  education.  He 
also  studied  in  Campo  Bello  and  Ouro  Preto.  In  1842, 
during  a  revolution  in  Minas,  he  left  school  and  enlisted 
as  a  soldier.  A  short  time  afterward  he  matriculated  in 
the  academy  at  Sao  Paulo,  where  he  mingled  with  Al- 
vares  de  Azevedo,  Aureliano  Lessa,  and  others.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  his  degree,  and  soon  after  tried  the  pro- 
fession of  teacher,  which,  however,  he  shortly  abandoned. 
He  then  came  to  Rio  and  became  a  journalist,  but  he 
soon  left  this  occupation,  to  return  to  Ouro  Preto,  where 
he  afterward  married  his  cousin.  Dona  Thereza  Guimaraes. 
Then  he  devoted  himself,  body  and  soul,  to  poetry  and 
novels,  entirely  forgetful  of  his  commonplace  condition 
of  bachelor  of  laws.  He  remained  there  till  his  death, 
which  happened  on  March  10,  188i. 

In  Sao  Paulo  Guimaraes  acquired  convivial  habits, 
which,  however,  did  not  seem  to  affect  his  robust  consti- 
tution, nor  deprive  him  of  the  qualities  which  made  him 
one  of  the  most  original  poets  and  novelists  of  his  coun- 
try. His  "  Cantos  da  Solidao  "  are  admired.  His  prose 
works  are  numerous;  and  the  best  is  the  "Ermitao  de 
Muquem,"  which  is  written  in  three  different  styles :  the 
first,  a  style  peculiar  to  himself,  describing  the  habits  and 
life  of  the  "  Sertao  "  of  Brazil ;  the  second,  a  kind  of  lyric 
style ;  and,  lastly,  a  style  which  the  writer  calls  realistic. 
Among  other  works  of  his  are  the  "  Garimpeiro,"  the 
"  Slave  Isaura,"  and  the  "  Seminarista."  The  story  of  the 
latter  is  more  or  less  this :  A  young  boy  is  brought  up  in 


222    BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

the  companionsliip  of  a  girl,  who  is  god-child  of  his 
mother ;  this  girl  is  poor  and  lives  on  his  father's  lands. 
The  boy,  named  Eugenio,  afterward  falls  in  love  with  this 
girl,  named  Margarida ;  but  his  parents  have  destined  him 
to  be  a  priest,  and  oblige  him  to  enter  the  seminary  in 
spite  of  his  unwillingness;  at  last  he  consents  to  being 
ordained,  believing  that  his  loved  Margarida  had  married 
another,  and  also  giving  way  to  the  religious  impulses  of 
his  nature.  Afterward  he  is  called  to  administer,  as  a 
priest,  the  last  unction  to  a  dying  woman.  He  discovers 
this  woman  to  be  his  Margarida,  and  that  the  cause  of  her 
languishing  was  love  for  him  to  whom  she  had  remained 
faithful ;  here  he  fights  a  great  battle  with  his  conscience, 
but  finally  falls ;  the  consequence  is,  he  considers  himseK 
a  base  and  eternally  lost  man.  The  next  day,  having  to 
celebrate  mass  for  the  first  time  before  going  up  to  the 
altar,  he  is  called  to  perform  the  last  funeral  rites  over 
the  body  of  a  woman  lying  in  the  church  ;  this  woman  is 
Margarida.  He  performs  the  service,  but  afterward,  as- 
cending the  altar,  instead  of  celebrating  the  mass,  he  be- 
fore the  public  begins  to  disrobe  himself,  tearing  his 
clothes,  and  rushes  out  of  the  church  a  furious  madman. 
The  writer's  object  is  to  show  the  error  of  the  CathoUc 
Church  in  compelling  her  ministers  to  remain  single; 
also  how  many  virtuous  men  become  corrupted  by  enter- 
ing the  ministry  against  their  inclination. 

Joaquim  Manoel  de  Macedo  was  bom  June  24,  1820, 
at  the  village  of  Itaborahy,  and  died  April  11, 1882.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  talent,  and  his  writings  in  prose  and 
verse  are  numerous.  He  distinguished  himself,  however, 
specially  as  a  novelist,  and  as  the  founder  of  the  Brazihan 
novel ;  abandoning  the  romantic  style,  he  brings  into  his 
novels  local  color  and  the  reaUty  of  the  customs  and 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  223 

habits  of  Brazilian  society.  In  1844.  the  time  in  which 
he  pubhshed  his  "  Moreninha,"  the  Brazilian  novel  .was 
yet  to  be  founded,  and  Macedo  was  proclaimed  its  founder. 
In  his  "  Moreninha  "  he  painted  society  as  it  really  was. 
And  Eio  then  was  gay,  and  not  mournful,  as  the  poets 
would  have  it ;  it  was  full  of  faith,  and  not  of  distrustful- 
ness,  like  to-day.  Everybody  could  see  his  picture  in  this 
book ;  a  universal  acceptance  of  it  followed  as  a  natural 
consequence.  Macedo  graduated  at  the  Faculty  of  Medi- 
cine of  Rio  de  Janeiro  ;  but  seeing  his  success  on  the  pub- 
lication of  the  "  Moreninha,"  he  left  his  profession  and 
gave  himself  up  to  the  study  of  history,  which  was  des- 
tined to  furnish  him  elements  for  his  historical  novels, 
for  his  appointment  as  Professor  of  History  in  the  College 
of  Dom  Pedro  II,  and  for  his  admission  into  the  Histori- 
cal Institute  of  Brazil  in  1845.  Many  works  followed 
one  after  another,  such  as  "Mo§o  Loire,"  published  in 
1845,  "  Dons  Amores,"  in  1848,  etc.  From  his  success  as 
a  novelist  Macedo  tried  his  pen  as  a  dramatist  and  was  not 
less  successful.  He  published  two  dramas  in  verse :  "  The 
Cego  "  ("  The  Blind  Man  ")  in  1 849,  and  "  Cobe  "  in  1852, 
two  inspired  productions,  particularly  the  latter.  His  com- 
edy "  Phantasma  Branco,"  among  many  others,  gained  also 
the  public  applause.  Macedo  was  now  at  the  height  of 
his  literary  fame;  and  here  he  began  to  write  for  the 
"  ]S"agao,"  a  journal  of  the  Liberal  party.  "Whatever  be 
the  character  of  the  political  articles  of  Macedo,  or  any  of 
his  services  in  this  field,  the  general  opinion  is  that  they 
are  not  worth  the  hundredth  part  of  his  purely  literary 
works.  Macedo's  character  was  not  fit  for  politics ;  as  a 
proof,  we  have  his  "  Yictimas-algozes,"  in  which  his  in- 
tention was  to  awaken  compassion  for  slavery,  but  which 
produced  the  opposite  effect,  that  of  hatred.     He  was  a 


224     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  bis  province,  was 
also  deputy  in  the  General  Assembly,  and  declined  to 
make  part  of  the  ministerial  Cabinet  of  August  31,  1864:. 
He  was  also  tbe  author  of  a  "  History  of  Brazil,"  for  the 
use  of  the  College  of  Dom  Pedro  II,  also  of  the  "  Bio- 
graphical Year,"  a  work  in  four  volumes.  The  style  of 
his  works  of  fiction  is  now  rather  out  of  date.  His  work, 
descriptive  of  Brazil,  of  which  an  imperfect  English 
translation  by  Le  Sage,  entitled  "  J^otions  on  the  Chorog- 
raphy  of  Brazil,"  Avas  published  at  Leipsic  in  1873,  is 
worthy  of  much  commendation,  particularly  for  its  scope 
and  purpose — there  being  generally  a  great  lack  of  books 
of  this  character.  It  contains  a  summary  of  the  history 
of  Brazil,  a  description  of  its  geography,  resources,  pro- 
ductions, and  institutions,  and  a  separate  sketch  of  each 
province,  and,  although  the  student  will  often  open  it  in 
vain  for  information  which  he  desires,  he  will  yet  find  in 
it  enough  to  give  it  a  value.  Its  great  fault  is  that  it 
abounds  too  much  in  glittering  generalities.  It  is  written 
in  a  flowing,  poetic,  and  occasionally  eloquent  style,  but 
is  apt  to  deal  in  exaggeration  when  describing  the  natural 
resources  of  the  country.  The  following  about  slavery- 
gives  a  specimen  of  his  metaphors :  "  In  the  country  itself 
the  complete  extinction  since  1852  of  the  criminal  Afri- 
can slave-trade  dried  up  the  principal  spring  of  an  evil  in 
every  point  of  view  more  than  shameless,  and  even  fatal ; 
and  on  the  28th  of  September,  1871,  the  law  which  eman- 
cipated the  offspring  of  women  slaves  closed  forever  the 
second  source  of  the  tophet  of  slavery,  ennobled  Brazil 
by  taking  from  her  the  slur  cast  on  her  as  the  country  of 
slavery,  and  causing  every  cradle  to  be  rocked  by  the 
sacred  breeze  of  liberty." 

He  describes  Antonio  Carlos,  one  of  the  early  public 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  225 

men  of  Sao  Paulo,  as  one  "  wliose  eloquence  might  be 
compared  to  a  cataract,  and  his  enthusiasm  to  a  volcano." 

The  following  is  less  extravagant  than  some  of  his 
descriptions :  "  The  soil  of  Matto-Grosso  is  of  wonderful 
fertility.  .  .  .  The  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  man- 
dioc,  the  common  cereals  of  the  country,  wheat,  all  escu- 
lents are  so  advantageously  cultivated  as  to  appear  in- 
credible. .  .  .  No  one  plants  rice,  which  only  requires  to 
be  plucked  by  those  who  require  it.  .  .  .  Matto-Grosso  is 
an  abyss  of  riches,  the  revelation  of  which  will  be  splen- 
did and  dazzling  in  a  future  not  far  distant." 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  name  some  of  the  distin- 
guished orators  of  the  pulpit.  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  the  birth- 
place of  Souza  Caldas,  Francisco  de  Sao  Carlos,  Francisco 
Sampaio,  and  Francisco  Jose  de  Carvalho,  known  as  Frei 
Francisco  de  Monte- Alverne,  a  name  given  to  him  on  en- 
tering the  convent  of  Sao  Antonio.  Of  these  orators  the 
greatest  is  Monte- Alverne,  born  in  Rio,  1785.  He  en- 
tered the  convent  of  Sao  Antonio  on  June  28,  1801.  On 
being  sent  to  Sao  Paulo,  he  was  there  ordained  presbyter 
in  1808,  preached  in  1810,  and  was  Professor  of  Arts  in 
1813.  Returning  to  Rio  with  a  confirmed  reputation,  he 
was  appointed  royal  preacher  in  1816,  in  1824  secretary 
of  the  province  of  Rio.  He  became  then  Professor  of 
Philosophy  in  the  Sao  Jose  seminary.  He  was  tall,  strong, 
and  muscular  ;  would  bend  forward  a  little  when  walking, 
on  account  of  his  short-sightedness ;  his  face  was  long, 
thin,  pale,  and  severe ;  his  voice  was  strong,  flexible,  deep, 
and  somewhat  harsh,  which  in  him  was  not  a  defect,  but 
rather  augmented  its  energy  and  gave  it  a  metallic  vibra- 
tion that  would  resound  in  the  largest  edifice.  He  spoke 
with  emphasis,  as  one  would  who  felt  what  he  said,  articu- 
lating every  syllable,  so  that  not  one  was  lost.     His  ser- 


226     BRAZIL;   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

mons  are  printed  in  three  volumes,  and  are  noted  for  their 
eloquence,  their  doctrine,  elevation  of  thoughts,  and  sub- 
lime pictures.  An  eye-witness  sajs  that,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  funeral  of  the  first  Empress  of  Brazil,  Dona  Leopol- 
dina,  when  that  tremendous  voice  of  the  orator  was  heard 
to  pronounce,  '*  God  crushes  against  the  walls  of  the 
tomb  all  these  giants  of  earth ! "  the  widower  Emperor 
bent  down  his  head  and  carried  his  hand  to  his  eyes,  and 
the  courtiers  present  all  looked  up  to  the  orator,  astounded 
at  his  boldness.  Twenty  years  before  his  death  he  was 
stricken  with  blindness,  but  even  after  this  misfortune  his 
sermons  excited  the  admiration  of  those  who  had  not 
heard  him  in  his  better  days.  He  died  on  December  3, 
1858,  in  Sao  Domingo.  His  body  was  brought  from  Sao 
Domingo  to  Eio  de  Janerio  in  the  imperial  yacht,  and 
transported  from  the  shore  to  the  convent  of  Sao  Antonio 
in  the  coxai.  carriages,  his  funeral  being  at  the  expense  of 
the  Emperor.  Monte- Alverne  was  also  a  poet ;  much  of 
his  sacred  poetry  is  sung  in  the  Protestant  churches  in  the 
empire,  and  consists  of  beautiful  verses. 

Another  clerical  orator,  who  was  also  a  poet,  is  Padre 
Antonio  Pereira  de  Souza  Caldas,  bom  in  Brazil,  educated 
in  Portugal,  and  receiving  in  Italy  the  finishing  touches 
of  his  education.  He  is  noted  for  his  eloquence,  for  his 
original  lyric  poetry,  but  especially  for  his  translation  of 
the  Psalms  of  David  in  Portuguese  verse.  For  instance, 
the  first  psalm — 

"  Yenturoso  o  que  nao  vaga 
Pela  estrada  criminosa 
Da  impiedade,  c  a  voz  dolosa 
Do  malvado  que  extravaga, 
Com  sorriso,  nao  affaga, 


BRx\ZILIAN  LITERATUEE.  227 

Nem  do  vicio  comiptor 
Na  cadina  pestilente 
Se  assenton  com  cego  ardor ; 
Antes  posta  sempre  a  mente 
Traz  na  lei  do  Creador  " — 

of  wMcIi  there  can  be  no  better  translation  in  English 
than  that  of  the  English  Bible. 

Among  the  names  of  distinguished  joumaUsts  in  Brazil 
may  be  mentioned  the  following,  together  with  the  papers 
for  which  they  wrote  :  In  the  time  of  the  Independence 
there  iigured  as  editors  and  writers  to  the  "  Eeverbero  " 
the  following:  Januario  da  Cunha  Barboza,  Francisco 
Ledo,  and  Capitao  Mor  Justiniano  Jose  da  Eocha. 

In  1831,  Evaristo  da  Yeiga,  editor  of  the  "Aurora 
Fluminense,"  caused  a  great  sensation. 

Later  on,  about  1856,  there  appeared  the  "  Correio 
Mercantil,"  in  which  the  principal  writers  were  Francisco 
Octaviano  de  Almeida  Rosa,  Yisconde  do  Rio  Branco,  and 
Jose  Martiniano  de  Alencar.  Of  these  three,  Octaviano 
is  still  living  and  a  senator.  Later  on  appeared  the  "  Re- 
fonna,"  of  which  Tavares  Bastos  was  editor.  And 
prominent  among  the  joumahsts  of  the  present  time  is 
Quintino  Bocayuva,  editor  of  the  "  Paiz,"  who  was  also 
editor  of  the  "  Globo  "  and  the  "  Republica." 

As  historians,  may  be  named  Joaquin  Manoel  de 
Macedo,  already  noticed  ;  Francisco  Adolpho  Yarnhagem, 
known  as  Yiscount  of  Porto  Seguro,  who  WTote  a  history 
of  Brazil  and  a  defense  of  Amerigo  Yespucci  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  America,  a  work  well  known  to  students  of  the 
voyages  of  the  early  navigators  of  the  era  of  Columbus ; 
and  Innocencio  F.  da  Silva,  who  wrote  a  "Diccionario 
Bibliographico." 


228     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Brazil  has  produced  many  poets,  and  some  who  are 
worthily  popular  in  their  country.  Of  these,  the  one  who 
probably  should  be  first  mentioned,  and  who  wrote  at  a 
time  when  Brazilian  literature  was  scarcely  distinct  from 
that  of  the  mother-country — Portugal — is  Frei  Jose  de  S. 
Kita  Dnrao,  author  of  the  epic  poem  "  Caramuru."  He 
was  born  in  the  province  of  Minas-Geraes  at  a  place  called 
Catta-preta,  in  the  district  of  N".  Senhora  de  IS'azareth  do 
Inf  eccionado,  about  sixteen  miles  to  the  north  of  Mariana. 
The  date  is  uncertain,  somewhere  between  1718  and  1720. 
He  died  in  the  College  of  Sao  Agostinho,  in  Lisbon,  Jan- 
uary 24,  1784.  He  was  a  member  of  the  order  of  Agus- 
tinho,  and  doctor  in  theology  by  the  University  of  Coim- 
bra.  He  entered  the  order  of  Agustinho  on  October  12, 
1738,  and  graduated  in  the  year  175G.  His  education 
began  in  Brazil  under  the  Jesuits,  who  then  had  founded 
good  schools,  and  where  Jose  Basilio  da  Gama  also  was 
instructed.  It  is  not  known  who  were  his  parents,  nor  at 
what  time  he  went  to  Europe.  In  1758,  shortly  after  he 
graduated,  he  was  in  Leiria,  where  he  preached  a  beauti- 
ful sermon  of  thanksgiving,  on  account  of  the  King,  Dom 
Jos6,  having  escaped  from  the  shots  fired  at  him  on  Sep- 
tember 3d  of  the  same  year.  He  did  not  stay  there  long ; 
leaving  Poitugal,  he  traversed  Spain  and  Italy,  spending 
about  eighteen  years  on  these  travels.  A  Brazilian  his- 
torian says  that  the  cause  of  his  leaving  Portugal  was  his 
refuting  certain  letters  of  the  Bishop  of  Leiria  written 
against  the  Jesuits  when  their  expulsion  was  decreed  in 
Portugal.  He  was  obliged  to  flee  to  Spain  on  this  ac- 
count. In  Spain  he  was  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of  being 
a  spy,  when  the  war  of  the  family  pact  broke  out  there ; 
being  afterward  set  free  in  1763,  he  went  to  Italy.  In 
1778  he  was  again  in  Portugal,  when  he  became  lecturer 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  229 

at  the  University  of  Coimbra.  After  his  return  to  Port- 
ugal he  only  lived  about  six  years,  in  which  he  finished 
his  poem,  which  was  published  in  1781.  Its  story  is  the 
discovery  of  Bahia,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
by  Diogo  Alvares  Corria,  whom  the  Indians  named  "  Ca- 
ramurti,"  from  his  use  of  fire-arms ;  it  comprehends  in 
several  episodes  the  history  of  Brazil,  the  rites  and  tradi- 
tions of  its  natives,  and  the  pohtics  of  the  colonies.  The 
argument  is  as  follows :  Diogo  Alvares  Corria  suffered 
shipwreck  near  Bahia.  He  was  saved  with  his  six  com- 
panions, who  were  devoured  by  the  Indians,  he  alone 
being  spared,  because  thin  and  ill,  the  savages  intending 
to  keep  him  until  he  should  get  better.  They  allowed 
him,  in  the  mean  while,  to  withdraw  from  the  wreck  pow- 
der, shot,  and  guns.  Having  killed  a  bird  flying,  in  their 
presence,  the  savages  pronounced  him  the  sun  of  thun- 
der, and  Caramuni— that  is,  dragon  of  the  sea.  Fighting 
against  the  natives  of  the  interior,  he  brought  them 
into  subjection.  The  chiefs  of  Brazil  offered  him  their 
daughters  as  wives,  but  he  chose  Paraguagu,  whom  he 
afterward  took  to  France  in  a  French  ship,  five  other 
Brazilian  women  following  him  swimming,  until  one  was 
drowned  and  the  others  returned.  In  France  Paraguagti 
was  baptized  as  Catharine.  Having  returned  with  Para- 
guaQti  to  Bahia,  he  was  received  by  the  Tupinambas,  who 
considered  Paraguagu  as  the  heiress  of  their  chief.  On 
the  voyage  to  Bahia  the  latter  has  a  vision,  in  which  is 
revealed  to  her  the  future  lot  of  Brazil.  About  this  time 
Thome  de  Sousa  arrives  with  some  ships  and  families  to 
people  Bahia,  whose  colonization  begins.  Paraguagu, 
or  Catharine  Alvares,  renounces  her  rights  in  favor  of 
Dom  Joao  III,  who  ordered  his  governors  to  honor 
Diogo  Alvares  for  the  services  he  had  rendered,  and 
20 


BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

she  was  in  fact  the  source  of  the  noble  house  of  Torre  in 
Bahia. 

The  passage  most  generally  quoted  as  the  best  is  the 
episode  of  Moema,  and  of  which  the  following  is  a  trans- 
lation : 

"  She  loses  the  brilliancy  of  her  eyes,  faints,  and  shud- 
ders, with  pale,  dying  aspect ;  her  hands,  already  deprived 
of  strength,  letting  go  of  the  rudder,  she  sinks  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foaming  waves;  but,  again  rising  from  the 
depths  of  the  angry  sea,  she  utters  with  pain,  '  O  cruel 
Diogo ! '  and  was  buried  in  the  waters,  to  be  seen  no 
more ! " 

One  of  the  best  known  of  Brazilian  poets  is  Antonio 
Gongalves  Dias,  who  was  born  August  10,  1823,  at  the 
town  of  Caxias,  Maranhao.  His  father,  who  was  a  Portu- 
guese, on  his  return  from  Portugal,  whence  he  had  fled 
on  account  of  the  war,  put  his  boy  into  mercantile  em- 
ployment, but  at  the  instance  of  some  friends,  who  saw  in 
him  an  inclination  for  letters,  he  was  placed  under  Ei- 
cardo  Joao  Sabino,  who  taught  him  the  rudiments  of 
Latin  and  French.  Having  acquired  the  necessary  foun- 
dation for  higher  studies,  he  set  out  with  his  father  for  Sao 
Luiz,  capital  of  the  province,  and  thence  to  Portugal,  on 
account  of  his  father's  health.  Having  lost  his  father, 
however,  he  returned  to  Maranhao.  His  step-mother  hav- 
ing afforded  liim  the  means  to  continue  his  studies,  he  re- 
turned to  Portugal  May  13,  1838,  where  he  studied  in  the 
University  of  Coimbra.  On  account  of  a  civil  war  which 
broke  out  in  Maranhao,  known  by  the  name  of  "  Bolai- 
ada,"  his  step -mother  suffered  losses,  and  suspended  his 
monthly  allowance ;  at  this  misfortune  he  intended  to  re- 
turn to  Brazil,  and  would  have  done  so,  but  for  the  kind- 
ness of  his  Brazilian  college  companions,  who  furnished 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  231 

him  tlie  necessary  means  to  continne.  Gon§alves  Dias, 
speaking  of  this  time,  says :  "  Sad  was  my  life  in  Coim- 
bra ;  it  is  a  sad  thing  to  live  away  from  our  native  coun- 
try, live  in  a  stranger's  house,  and  sit  at  a  strange  table  as 
a  favor  !  This  table  belonged  to  good  and  faithful  friends, 
that  is  true  !  The  bread  was  another's,  it  was  the  bread 
of  charity,  it  was  the  lot  of  the  mendicant ! "  Having 
succeeded  at  last  in  taking  his  degree  as  Bachelor  in  Ju- 
ridical Sciences,  he  returned  to  Caxias  in  1845,  and  there 
began  the  profession  of  advocate ;  but  soon  went  to  Kio, 
and  in  1846  published  his  "Primeiros  Cantos,"  which 
gained  him  much  honor.  He  became  instnictor  of  Latin 
at  a  lyceum  in  [DTictheroy.  In  1847  he  published  his  best 
drama,  entitled  "Leonor  de  Mendonga,"  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  ^*  Sextilhas  de  Frei  Antao."  He  became 
distinguished,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  in 
the  College  of  Dom  Pedro  II.  In  1851  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment detailed  him  to  study  and  report  on  the  state  of 
public  instruction  in  various  northern  provinces,  and  the 
best  means  of  bettering  its  condition.  On  his  return  from 
the  north  (1852)  he  was  appointed  secretary  in  the  Office 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  the  same  year  married  Dona  Olym- 
pia  da  Costa.  In  1855  he  set  out  for  Europe,  employed  by 
the  Government,  in  order  to  study  the  best  methods  and 
the  ones  most  applicable  for  Brazil  in  respect  of  public 
instruction.  Beginning  with  Portugal,  where  he  visited 
the  cities  of  Lisbon,  Oporto,  Coimbra,  and  Evora,  he  trav- 
eled successively  through  France,  England,  and  Germany, 
examining  different  establishments  of  education.  In  1857 
he  printed  his  dictionary  of  the  Tupy  language,  called 
the  general  tongue  of  the  native  Indians  of  Brazil ;  also 
the  first  four  cantos  of  his  celebrated  "  Tymbiras."  On 
his  retimi  to  Rio  he  was  again  sent  out  on  a  scientific 


232     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

commission  to  explore  and  report  on  the  resources  of  Bra- 
zil, and  spent  six  months  in  the  Amazon  Yalley,  when  his 
health  broke  down,  and  he  returned  to  Rio.  Deriving  no 
benefit  from  his  stay  in  Rio,  he  embarked  for  Europe, 
but  still  with  no  better  result,  until  at  last  he  resolved  to 
return  to  his  native  land,  making  a  long  sea-voyage,  from 
which  he  hoped  to  derive  some  benefit.  lie  embarked 
September  14, 1864,  on  the  ship  Yille  de  Boulogne,  bound 
for  Maranhao,  but  he  never  again  arrived  on  land ;  the 
ship  was  wrecked,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  crew,  seeing 
him  so  ill,  abandoned  him,  and  left  him  to  die  on  IS'ovem- 
ber  3,  1864.  His  chief  w^orks  are  the  "Cantos,"  the 
"  Tymbiras,"  and  "  Y-Juca-Pirama  " — two  poems  on  abo- 
riginal subjects,  both  published  in  Leipsic.  The  first  of 
the  two  is  incomplete.  Gongalves  Dias  is,  in  the  opinion 
of  many,  the  best  Brazihan  lyric  poet.  The  following 
are  the  first  and  last  verses  of  one  of  his  most  popular 
poems : 

"  In  my  country  there  are  palm-trees 
Where  sings  the  sabia ; 
The  birds  which  warble  here 
Are  not  like  those  afar. 

"  God  forbid  that  I  may  die. 

Before  returning  to  my  land ; 
Before  I  enjoy  those  scenes 

Which  here  I  can  not  find  ; 
Without  seeing  again  those  palm-trees 

Where  sings  the  sabid  I " 

A  beautiful  epic  poem  of  his  is  his  "  Tymbiras,"  of 
which  there  are  only  four  cantos,  the  rest  being  lost  with 
him  in  the  shipwreck.    The  hero  of  the  poem  is  the  chief 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  233 

of  the  Indians  Tjmbiras,  Itajuba ;  the  scenes  are  placed 
in  Maranhao,  at  the  time  of  the  colonization.  In  the  four 
cantos  existing  only  the  Indians  are  spoken  of,  the  civil- 
ized man  taking  no  part  in  them.  One  of  the  notable 
episodes  is  that  of  Coema  ; 

" '  Flower  of  beauty,  light  of  love,  Coema,'  murmured 
the  singer,  '  where  wentest  thou,  so  sweet  and  beautiful, 
when  the  sun  was  rising  ?  Coema,  what  love  thou  hast 
left  in  us  !  Thou  wast  so  meek,  thy  smile  so  soft,  so  se- 
rene thine  eyes  !  Thine  accents  a  beautiful  singing,  thy 
voice  sweet  warbles,  thy  words  honey !  If  the  break  of 
day  would  compare  its  enchantments  with  thine,  it  would 
really  try  in  vain  ! '  " 

Another  poet  of  earlier  date  was  Domingos  Jose  Gon- 
galves  Magalhaes,  who  was  born  at  Eio  de  Janeiro,  Au- 
gust 13,  1811.  His  writings  are  much  admired  for  their 
simplicity  and  their  elevated  moral  tone.  His  chief  work 
is  the  "  Confederagao  dos  Tamoyos,"  a  poem  rich  in  in- 
spirations, patriotism,  and  enthusiasm.  He  may  be  said 
to  be  the  founder  of  the  national  theatre,  being  the  first 
Brazilian  to  write  a  tragedy,  and  one  whose  subject  con- 
cerns his  native  country.  This  tragedy  was  "Antonio 
Jose,"  or  the  "  Poeta  e  a  Inquisigao."  His  name  is  to 
be  seen  among  the  founders  of  the  Historical  and  Geo- 
graphical Institute  of  Brazil,  in  which  he  published  an 
historical  memoir  of  high  merit.  The  scene  of  "  Con- 
federa§ao  dos  Tamoyos"  lies  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  the 
first  times  of  Brazilian  colonization:  Three  Portuguese 
attack  an  Indian  girl  and  kiU  her  brother  who  comes  to 
her  rescue,  but  at  the  same  time  they  fall  under  the 
blows  of  this  dying  chief.  Kext  the  Tamoyos,  to  which 
tribe  the  Indian  belonged,  determine  to  take  vengeance 
on  the  Portuguese.   They  hold  a  council  of  war,  and  then 


234     BRAZIL:    ITS  OOITBITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

march  against  the  new  inllage  of  Sao  Yiceiite ;  the  battle 
is  described,  then  peace  is  made,  marriages  are  celebrated, 
Indians  are  converted,  and  so  on.  The  poem  is  divided 
into  ten  cantos  and  is  in  blank  verse.  I  will  quote  a 
passage  where  Aimbrie,  the  chief  of  the  Tamoyos,  comes 
upon  Pindobucii  as  he  is  burying  his  son  Comorim,  killed 
by  the  three  Portuguese,  and  asks  him  when  he  is  going 
to  avenge  his  son,  and,  on  being  asked  if  he  knew  where 
the  enemies  lived,  he  says  : 

"Where  are  they?  thou  inquirest.  Knowest  not 
where  are  the  ferocious  Portuguese  who  rob  us  of  our 
Bons  and  women,  and  kill  our  parents,  brothers,  and 
friends  ?  Thou  knowest  not  where  these  ungrateful  be- 
ings are,  who  take  possession  of  our  lands  and  pei*secute 
us,  hunting  us  down  and  making  us  slaves  ?  .  .  ." 

Another  esteemed  poet  of  Brazil  is  Casimiro  Jose, 
Marques  de  Abreu,  bom  at  the  village  of  Barra  do  Sao 
Joao,  province  of  Eio  de  Janeiro,  January  4,  1837.  His 
father  was  Portuguese,  his  mother  Brazilian.  At  nine 
years  of  age  he  was  sent  to  Freese,  a  school  in  iXova- 
Friburgo.  Before  finishing  his  preparatory  studies  he 
returned  to  Eio  to  his  father's  business  office ;  but  show- 
ing no  inclination  for  business,  he  was  sent  to  Lisbon, 
November  13,  1853,  and  stayed  in  Portugal  nearly  four 
years.  There  he  published  in  Hterary  papers  some  of  his 
verses  which  were  much  applauded,  also  a  drama  entitled 
"  Camoes  c  o  Jdo."  Family  interests,  together  with  persua- 
sions and  orders  from  his  father,  caused  his  return  to  Rio, 
January  11,  1857.  He  died  at  his  father's  home  in  In- 
dayassu,  October  IS,  1860.  The  Rio  edition  of  his  works 
contains,  in  all,  seventy  lyric  pieces  of  different  metres, 
and  which  in  his  preface  he  says  are  "  flowers  which  the 
wind  will  scatter  to-morrow,  only  serving  as  the  promises 


BRAZILIAN  LITEPwATUEE.  235 

of  the  fruits  of  autumn."     The  following  is  the  last  verse 
of  his  song,  ''  My  Country  "  : 

"  It  is  full  of  beauties,  so  full 
My  native  country  is. 
Even  a  poet  dreams  not  of  them ; 
Kor  can  a  mortal  sing  them. 
It  is  a  land  of  love 
Scattered  over  with  flowers, 
Where  the  breeze  in  its  murmurs 
Whispers,  '  It  has  no  rival'  " 

Antonio  Castro  Alves  was  bom  March  14,  1847,  at 
the  farm  of  Cabaceiras,  near  Curralinho,  in  the  district 
of  Cachoeira,  province  of  Bahia ;  his  father  was  Dr.  A. 
J.  Alves,  professor  in  the  faculty  of  medicine  of  Bahia, 
and  his  mother.  Dona  Clelia  B.  da  Sa.  Castro.  In  the 
beginning  of  1870  he  collected  his  scattered  verses  and 
published  them  under  the  title  of  "  Espumas  Eluctuantes  " 
("  Floating  Foam  ").  It  was  not  long  before  he  fell  a  victim 
to  pulmonary  consumption,  wliich  carried  him  to  liis  grave 
July  6,  1871.  He  left  many  manuscripts  which  have  been 
published :  "  Gonzaga,"  a  drama  in  four  acts ;  the  "  Ca- 
choeira de  Paulo- Affonso  "  ;  a  fragment  of  the  poem  "  Os 
Escravos,"  which  is  incomplete  ;  and  others  which  are  still 
unpublished.  His  best  work  is  doubtless  the  "  Cachoeira 
de  Paulo- Affonso,"  composed  of  many  short  pieces  of  dif- 
ferent metres,  and  of  which  the  following  is  an  extract : 

"  I  sinned  I  .  .  .  Great  was  my  crime,  but  greater  still 
is  my  punishment.  .  .  .  Ah !  the  bitterness  of  the  nights 
without  shelter  was  not  sufficient ;  all  that  I  suffered  from 
the  whip  and  the  torture  which  lacerated  my  flesh  did 
not  suffice.     More  pains  were  necessary,  still  a  greater 


236     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PKOSPEOTS. 

sacrifice.  .  .  .  Son !  thou  seest  my  torture.  ...  I  am  to 
be  separated  from  thee !  .  .  ." 

A  poet  of  considerable  merit,  but  of  whom  no  biog- 
raphy is  to  be  found,  was  Fagundes  Yarella.  He  died  a 
few  years  ago,  and  is  the  author  of  "  Auchieta,"  a  poem 
in  blank  verse ;  the  "  Diario  de  Lazaro  "  ;  "  Yozes  d' Ame- 
rica," a  collection  of  verses ;  and  "  Cantos  Meridionaes." 
Among  his  writings  should  be  mentioned  with  special 
notice  his  "  Cantico  do  Calvario,"  a  poem  in  blank  verse, 
written  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  a  son. 

Among  the  poetical  writers  who  are  yet  living  are 
Alberto  de  Oliveira,  author  of  the  "  Meridionaes,"  a  col- 
lection of  poems,  of  which  the  best  are  thought  to  be 
"Labor  das  Lagrimas"  and  the  "Leque";  Raymundo 
Correa,  author  of  the  "  Symphonias,"  and  of  which  the  best 
are  "  Plena  IlTudez,"  "  Sanctas  Esmolas,"  and  "  As  Pom- 
bas  "  ;  Yalentim  Magalhaes,  author  of  a  poem,  "  Colombo 
e  Nene,"  a  work  of  some  literary  value ;  Luiz  Guimaraes, 
Jr.,  author  of  the  "  Sonetos  e  Rimas,"  "Kocturnas," 
"  Curvas  e  Zigzags,"  etc. ;  and,  lastly,  Machado  de  Assis, 
a  poet  also,  but  known  especially  as  a  writer  of  short 
stories.  He  has  written  several  books  of  stories  and 
verses  in  a  style  very  peculiar  to  himself.  Of  his  books 
of  stories  may  be  mentioned  one  entitled  "  Historias  sem 
Datas,"  and  as  one  of  the  best  stories,  "  Miss  Dollar." 

The  periodical  literature  of  Brazil  comprises  now  only 
about  two  reviews,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  the  quar- 
terly review  published  by  the  Historical,  Geographical, 
and  Ethnological  Institute  of  Brazil — "  Revista  Trimen- 
sal  do  Instituto  Historico  Geographico  e  Ethnographico 
do  Brazil,"  published  at  Rio,  and  of  which  the  last  number, 
comprising  parts  one  and  two,  1884,  is  forty-seven.  It  is 
a  large,  well-printed  octavo  volume  of  over  eight  hundred 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  237 

pages,  and  is  filled  principally  with  historical  docnments. 
The  "  Law  Review,"  also  published  at  Rio,  monthly,  en- 
titled "  O  Direito  Revista  Mensal  de  Legislagao,  Doutrina 
e  Jurisprudencia,"  is  filled  principally  with  juridical  de- 
cisions and  opinions.  The  latest  number  is  over  a  year 
behind.  A  literary  review  had  an  existence  of  about  three 
years,  and  ceased  a  few  years  ago. 

*  The  daily  newspaper  press  is  fairly  represented.  In 
Rio  Janeiro  the  principal  newspaper  is  the  "  Jomal  do 
Commercio,"  established  in  1827,  daily  circulation  now 
twenty  thousand,  is  printed  on  a  modern  French  press, 
on  roll  paper,  at  the  rate  of  ten  thousand  an  hour.  It 
goes  to  press  from  3  to  4  a.  m.  Four  thousand  copies  of 
this  paper  leave  Rio  every  morning  for  the  province  of 
Sao  Paulo.  The  "Gazeta  de  I^oticias,"  estabhshed  in 
1876,  is  printed  on  a  similar  press  as  the  last  named,  and 
goes  to  press  from  2  to  3  a.  m.  The  "  Paiz,"  established 
in  1884,  goes  to  press  at  midnight.  These  probably  have 
each  a  smaller  circulation  than  the  "Jornal  do  Com- 
mercio."  There  is  one  small  evening  paper,  "  Gazeta  a 
Tarde,"  its  specialty  being  the  cause  of  the  abolition  of 
slavery. 

The  press  enjoys  the  greatest  liberty.  Public  meas- 
ures and  public  men  are  discussed  with  entire  freedom, 
but  without  much  personal  abuse.  The  highest  officers 
of  the  Government  are  caricatured  in  illustrated  papers 
with  as  much  latitude  as  in  the  United  States.  As  com- 
pared with  English  and  American  journals,  the  Brazilian 
press  would  seem  very  unenterprising  in  respect  to  news. 
But  political  and  social  questions  are  often  treated  in  an 
eloquent  manner.  The  "  Jornal "  publishes  in  full  all 
the  debates  of  the  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and 
aU  those  of  the  Provincial  Legislature  and  of  the  Muni- 


238     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

cipal  Chamber,  so  that  there  are  but  few  weeks  in  the 
year  that  the  reader  is  not  first  greeted  every  morning, 
on  taking  np  the  great  barn-door  sheet,  with  a  couple  of 
broadsides,  more  or  less,  of  speeches.  An  important 
source  of  income  of  the  journal  in  question  is  the  publi- 
cation of  anonymous  communications  on  nearly  any  sub- 
ject, public  or  personal,  for  pay.  Anybody  can  bring  his 
views  before  the  public  in  this  way,  by  paying  for  the 
pubHcation  of  his  article. 

As  a  rule,  all  the  newspapers  publish  novels  Vi^feuille- 
ions  at  the  bottom  part  by  daily  short  chapters.  The  cir- 
culation appears  to  be,  in  a  very  great  degree,  through 
the  newsboys.  The  Brazilian  "  Punch,"  or  paper  of  hu- 
mor, is  an  eight-paged  illustrated  periodical  of  quarto 
size,  entitled  "  Revista  Illustrada,"  published  at  Rio,  and 
now  in  its  ninth  year  of  publication.  Perhaps  a  good 
sample  number  would  be  that  issued  about  the  time  of 
the  crisis  in  the  Dantas  ministry,  on  account  of  the  slav- 
ery question.  On  the  first  page  is  a  striking  illustration 
entitled  "  A  Medical  Conference."  Brazil,  personified 
as  an  Indian  maiden,  lies  sick,  bolstered  up  in  bed,  and 
covered  with  the  bedclothes  nearly  to  her  bosom,  which, 
like  her  arms,  is  bare.  On  one  side,  near  the  head  of  the 
couch,  sits  the  Emperor  in  a  deeply  meditative  mood, 
his  legs  crossed,  and  his  chin  resting  in  his  left  hand. 
On  the  opposite  side  of  the  couch  is  a  group  of  Brazilian 
statesmen,  readily  distinguishable  by  their  portraits,  in  the 
center  of  which  is  Senator  Dantas,  the  prime  minister, 
holding  in  his  right  hand  a  bottle  of  medicine  labeled 
with  his  project  of  emancipation.  On  his  right  are  rep- 
resented Senators  Affonso  Celso  and  Christiano  Ottoni, 
and  on  his  left  Senators  Sinimbti,  Martinho  Campos,  Co- 
tigipe,  Paulino,  and  Joao  Alfredo.     The  chief  medical 


BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE.  239 

officer  (Senator  Dantas)  :  "  We  all  agree  that  tlie  patient 
suffers  from  acute  abolition.  Well,  I  think  that  with  this 
remedy  of  mine  she  will  soon  recover.  If  my  colleagues 
of  the  Senate  think  otherwise,  let  them  express  their 
opinions,  and  we  will  discuss  what  are  the  best  means 
of  saving  the  country.  If  any  one  has  a  more  effective 
remedy,  let  him  present  it."  Affonso  Celso  (aside) :  "  You 
will  not  catch  us !  That  is  our  secret."  Christiano  Ot- 
toni :  "  What  they  want  is  to  take  charge  of  the  patient 
without  responsibility.  What  line  doctors ! "  "  And  what 
will  the  nurse  "  (the  Emperor)  "  of  the  patient  say  ?  " 

Another  illustration  represents  the  figure  of  a  female 
lying  under  a  tree  in  the  desert,  with  this  text :  "  All  who 
have  seen  the  '  Africana '  of  Meyerbeer  know  how  Selika 
died.     Poor  thing  !  " 

This  is  followed  by  an  illustration  of  an  Indian  female 
lying  under  a  big  tree ;  the  carriage  of  a  minister  of  state 
passing  near ;  and  below,  this  text :  "  Brazil,  sleeping  un- 
der the  shade  of  the  mortifera  mancenilha^  runs  equally 
great  risk.  Numerous  governments  passed  indifferent  dur- 
ing long  years." 

The  whole  of  the  last  page  is  devoted  to  the  "  Car- 
riage of  State  conducted  by  the  Conservatives."  A  figure 
representing  the  Emperor  sits  bareheaded  on  the  back 
seat,  reading  a  book;  opposite,  facing  him,  sits  Brazil, 
still  personified  as  an  Indian  maiden.  On  the  top  is  a 
slave  family.  The  driver's  seat  is  occupied  by  the  chief 
of  the  Conservative  party,  Baron  Cotigipe,  whose  team  is 
a  big  turtle  and  a  crab  ;  the  reins  which  he  holds  are  fast- 
ened to  the  turtle's  mouth,  and  he  is  bending  forward  to 
apply  the  lash.  A  prominent  Conservative  senator  is  rid- 
ing the  crab,  which  is  turning  off  at  right  angles  from 
the  turtle.     Senator  Teixeira  is  pushing  at  one  of  the 


24:0     BRAZIL:  ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

wheels.  A  yoke  of  oxen  are  hitched  behind,  with  heads 
toward  the  carriage,  to  prevent  it  from  going  too  fast ; 
and,  to  retard  the  motion  still  more.  Senator  Junqueira  is 
represented  as  pulling  back  on  the  hind  wheel ;  while  Sen- 
ator Paulino,  facing  to  the  rear,  appears  to  be  holding 
back  strongly  by  means  of  the  oxen's  tails,  the  ends  of 
which  he  holds  firmly  over  his  shoulder.  Senator  Correia 
is  standing  up  behind  the  carriage,  making  a  speech. 


CHAPTER  XY. 

AGRICULTURE   AND   STOCK-EAISINa. 

I  Brazil  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country,  yet 
its  agriculture  differs  from  that  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe  as  much  in  its  methods  as  in  its  products.  The 
surface  of  the  land  is  so  abruptly  broken  that  it  does  not 
generally  admit  of  the  use  of  the  plow  and.  the  more 
modern  implements,  and  yet  there  are  important  areas 
where  these  implements  could  be  used  to  advantage,  and 
there  is  some  increase  in  their  introduction.  As  a  rule, 
the  hoe  is  the  main  implement  for  field-culture.  As  the 
soil  in  Brazil,  especially  in  the  coffee  regions,  is  a  firm, 
red  clay,  mixed  with  gravel,  the  hoe  necessarily  is  about 
twice  as  heavy  and  large  as  the  field-hoe  in  common  use 
in  the  United  States.  It  often  takes  the  place  of  a  grub- 
hoe.  I  have  seen  a  platoon  of  hands  in  one  rank  moving 
over  a  field  of  low  bushes,  which  they  were  leveling  with 
the  hoe  and  apparently  breaking  the  soil  at  the  same  time. 
The  cheapest  ones,  say  those  of  iron,  and  weighing  two 
and  a  half  pounds,  range  in  price  from  three  dollars  and 
eighty-nine  cents  per  dozen  upward.  They  are  imported 
in  barrels  of  ten  dozen  in  a  barrel,  principally  from  Eng- 
land, and  six  hundred  thousand  hoes  are  imported  and 
disposed  of  at  Rio  annually.  The  upper  half  of  the  hoe 
21 


242     BPwAZlL:   ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PEOSPEOTS. 

is  generally  painted  in  green  or  some  otlier  fancy  color, 
and  I  Lave  seen  samples  at  coffee  exhibitions  that  were 
even  gilded.  Another  implement  in  considerable  use  is  a 
sort  of  knife  about  as  long  and  heavy  as  a  cleaver,  curved 
at  the  end,  fastened  to  a  long  wooden  handle,  and  in 
planting  is  used  both  to  open  the  soil  and  cover  the  seed. 

A  Portuguese,  who  at  the  latter  part  of  the  last  cent- 
ury wrote  on  the  agriculture  of  Brazil,  represented  that 
the  Indians  in  planting  corn  used  a  stick,  the  end  of 
which  had  been  burned  and  sharp  pointed,  to  open  the 
ground  for  the  seed  and  to  cover  it.  He  shows  that  the 
destruction  of  the  timber  in  order  to  plant  was  the  same 
then  as  now,  that  the  system  of  the  white  people  was 
scarcely  better  than  that  of  the  natives,  and  he  eloquently 
laments  such  waste  of  timber,  as  well  as  the  lack  on  the 
part  of  the  settlers  of  the  use  of  the  plow.  Probably  less 
than  two  thousand  plows,  and  all  imported,  are  sold  at  Eio 
in  the  course  of  a  year.  A  good  breaking-plow  retails  at 
from  twenty  to  thirty  dollars,  and  a  common  plow,  such 
as  would  be  used  with  one  yoke  of  oxen,  at  ten  to  twelve 
dollars  each.  The  latter  sort  of  plow  appears  to  have  the 
preference,  as  one  yoke  of  oxen  is  the  most  convenient 
team  for  its  use.  'The  Government  discriminates  in  favor 
of  agricultural  implements,  and  the  transportation  of 
them  on  Government  railroads  is  cheap. 

Coffee  is  the  leading  crop,  and,  though  gi^own  princi- 
pally in  the  three  large  provinces  near  Eio,  is  raised  suc- 
cessfully in  every  province  except  perhaps  the  two  most 
southerly  ones.  Its  production  is  increasing  very  consid- 
erably, especially  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  in  the 
vicinity  of  new  lines  of  railway  and  newly  opened  lines 
of  river  navigation.  Take  the  whole  country  together, 
and  the  coffee-crop  is  destined  to  have  a  greatly  increased 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  243 

development.  Sugar-cane,  cotton,  maize,  tobacco,  and  up- 
land rice  are  readily  grown  in  every  province.  Wliile 
many  of  the  coffee-plantations  are  kept  very  clean  and 
have  a  beautiful  appearance,  both  from  their  great  extent 
and  the  mingled  colors  of  the  soil  and  plant,  yet  ordi- 
narily agriculture  presents  a  shiftless  appearance.  The 
smaller  crops,  like  maize,  are  planted  on  patches  from 
which  bushes  or  timber  have  been  recently  about  half  cut 
and  haK  burned  off,  and  the  soil  of  which  has  never  felt 
the  plow.  The  coffee  tree  or  bush  varies  from  eight  to 
tw^elve  feet  in  height,  according  to  age  and  richness  of 
soil,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  productive  plants. 
Its  stem  is  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  a  drab 
color.  Its  foliage  is  abundant,  and  of  a  rich  dark-green 
color,  the  leaves  being  enameled  on  the  upper  side,  pos- 
sessing a  graceful,  tapering  form,  about  five  inches  in 
length  and  two  inches  in  width  at  the  widest  part.  Its 
abundant  blossoms  are  of  a  delicate  white  color,  and  a 
single  one  resembles  in  shape  and  size  a  separate  lilac- 
flower. 

The  berry  grows  on  slender  branches  with  scarcely 
any  more  stem  than  that  of  an  acorn,  and,  when  ready 
for  gathering,  has  a  brownish-red  color.  Picture  to  your- 
self plump,  fully  ripe,  and  finely  colored  cranberries  or 
cherries  strung  upon  long  twigs  amid  the  foliage  I  have 
mentioned,  and  you  mil  have  a  fair  idea  of  how  a  coffee- 
tree  looks  when  its  fruit  is  ready  to  pick.  At  this  time 
the  berry,  on  being  held  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  is 
firm  to  the  touch.  On  cutting  it  open,  the  skin  appears 
tougher  than  the  toughest  grape-skin.  A  rather  thin 
coating  of  juicy,  sweet,  and  not  unpleasant  pulp  is  found 
to  surround  the  two  coffee-beans  within,  and  which  are 
inclosed  each  in  its  separate  husk  or  shell.     As  a  single 


244:    BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tree  will  sometimes  have  a  biishel  or  two  of  such  fruit, 
one  can  imagine  that  thousands  of  them  together  will 
present  a  handsome  appearance ;  all  the  more  beautiful, 
indeed,  from  the  thought  that  their  product  constitutes 
one  of  man's  chief  luxuries. 

Coffee  is  principally  grown  by  slave  labor  on  large 
plantations,  situated  on  sides  of  high  hills  and  even  upon 
mountains,  often  quite  steep ;  such  land  being  preferred 
because  it  is  richer,  and  because,  being  elevated,  it  is  safer 
from  frost.  In  recent  years  the  total  yield  has  reached 
the  immense  quantity  of  about  six  million  bags,  or  say 
fully  seven  hundred  million  pounds  each  year,  being 
sufficient  to  supply  each  inhabitant  of  the  United 
States  with  twelve  pounds !  The  actual  export  of  coffee 
from  Brazil  to  the  United  States  has  amounted  in 
the  latest  years  to  about  four  hundred  million  pounds 
a  year. 

I  have  lately  seen  most  luxuriant  coffee-plantations  on 
purple  clay  soil  of  great  depth,  which,  without  manuring, 
has  constantly  produced  either  sugar-cane  or  coffee  for 
forty  years,  and  which  seems  inexhaustible.  For  land  of 
that  quahty  yet  in  an  unimproved  and  wild  condition,  and 
situated  near  a  railroad,  and  upward  of  a  hundred  miles 
from  a  seaport,  seventy  dollars  an  acre  would  be  asked. 
There  are,  however,  wild  tracts  of  similar  coffee-land  now 
covered  with  timber,  situated  a  hundred  miles  or  more 
from  some  of  the  present  railway  terminations  in  the 
province  of  Sao  Paulo,  which  could  be  bought  at  about 
ten  dollars  an  acre,  but  which,  from  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation, are  not  now  available  for  cultivation.  ',!N'ow 
would  probably  be  a  good  time  to  settle  on  them  and 
"  grow  up  with  the  country,"  as,  after  the  railroads  reach 
them,  they  will  be  very  desirable  for  plantations,  provided 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  245 

always  that  the  rates  of  transportation  are  not  too  ex- 
cessive. 

It  does  not  pay  to  cultivate  less  than  about  twelve 
thousand  trees,  which  would  require  thirty-six  acres  of 
land.  A  faithful  man  with  a  pair  of  mules  and  a  plow 
could  keep  such  a  plantation  clean,  and  could  besides 
raise  com,  rice,  and  beans  enough  for  his  household  and 
animals.  It  is  usual  to  raise  these  other  crops  between 
the  rows  of  coffee-trees  till  the  latter  are  in  bearing  condi- 
tion. The  coffee-tree  sometimes  begins  to  yield  at  the 
age  of  three  years.  It  flowers  in  August  and  September 
(a  second  flowering  in  November  and  December,  and 
sometimes  a  third  one  in  January,  also  have  some  yield), 
and  developing  slowly  ripens  in  April  and  May,  and  be- 
gins to  come  to  the  market  in  June.  A  crop  year,  there- 
fore, dates  from  the  1st  of  July  in  each  year  and  lasts 
until  June  30th  of  the  next  year.  It  is  gathered  by  strip- 
ping it  by  hand  from  the  branches,  and  often  with  haste 
and  carelessness,  taking  the  leaves  with  it.  While  some 
gather  it  into  baskets  hung  around  their  necks,  others 
simply  let  it  fall  upon  the  ground,  a  practice  very  differ- 
ent from  the  system  in  Java,  where  the  coffee-berries  are 
carefully  picked  one  by  one  and  deposited  in  a  dish  or 
basket.  There,  under  Dutch  administration,  one  family 
will  cultivate  five  hundred  trees,  while  in  Brazil  a  single 
hand  in  the  province  of  Eio  de  Janeiro  cultivates  from 
three  to  seven  thousand  trees.  Besides,  in  Brazil  a  great 
deal  of  coffee  is  picked  before  it  is  ripe.  It  is  also  in- 
jured sometimes  by  being  left  too  long  a  time  on  the 
ground  after  it  has  been  picked. 

The  average  yield  per  year  in  the  province  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  is  three  fourths  of  a  pound  per  tree ;  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Minas-Geraes  a  little  more ;  in  the  province  of  Sao 


246     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Paulo  a  pound  and  a  lialf  per  tree,  wliile  in  the  vicinity 
of  Campinas,  a  very  fertile  coffee  -  producing  region  in 
the  same  province,  the  average  yield  is  almost  two  pounds 
per  tree,  or  say  fourteen  and  a  half  bags  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-two  pounds  each  per  one  thousand  trees. 

The  coffee-tree  is  very  sensitive.  The  injuries  it  is 
liable  to  are  from  frost,  hail,  excessive  sunshine,  which 
shrivels  the  fruit  when  green  and  tender;  depredations 
by  a  small  butterfly,  which  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  leaves ; 
but  most  of  all  an  ant,  which  is  half  an  inch  in  length, 
and  which  undermines  the  tree.  The  larger  plantations 
annually  expend  a  thousand  dollars  and  upward,  each,  for 
bisulphide  of  carbon  to  destroy  these  ants.  Usually  coffee 
is  hulled  or  thrashed — mechanically — after  it  is  ripe  and 
dry.  The  machinery  for  cleaning  coffee  and  putting  it  in 
its  most  attractive  condition  for  the  market  is  expensive, 
and  on  the  large  plantations,  which  are  occasionally  found 
equipped  with  enterprise,  sometimes  costs  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  thousand  dollars ;  and  the  machinery  necessary 
for  cleaning  the  crop  of  a  small  farm  could  hardly  be  pro- 
cured for  less  than  three  thousand  dollars.  Many  immi- 
grant coffee-farmers  are  consequently  obliged  to  send  their 
coffee  to  market  in  a  crude  condition,  and  to  submit  to  a 
heavy  deduction  in  price  on  that  account.  In  other  lo- 
calities they  can  "  go  to  mill "  with  their  crude  coffee,  and 
get  it  hulled  at  about  half  a  cent  per  pound. 

A  great  improvement  in  the  process  of  hulHng  coffee 
has  been  introduced  through  the  machinery  invented  and 
manufactured  by  Mr.  William  Yan  Yleck  Lidgerwood,  of 
Morristown,  "N.  J.,  who  has  devoted  many  years  to  the 
w^ork,  and  achieved  great  success.  His  machinery  is  ac- 
knowledged in  Brazil  to  have  caused  an  important  saving, 
not  only  of  labor  but  of  life.     The  title  of  commandor 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  247 

dor^  conferred  upon  him  bj  the  Brazilian  Government, 
was  certainly  a  very  slight  recognition  of  the  great  service 
he  has  rendered  to  the  industry  of  the  country.  From 
the  plantation  coffee  is  taken  in  coarse  and  often  patched 
sacks,  which  bear  the  planter's  name,  and  are  afterward  re- 
turned to  him,  on  mules  or  in  squeaking  wooden- wheeled 
ox-carts  to  the  nearest  railway-station,  whence  it  is  carried 
by  railway  at  very  high  rates  of  transportation  to  the  sea- 
port. Arrived  at  the  market,  the  first  quantities  say  in 
June  or  July,  it  has  before  shipment  to  go  through  sev- 
eral hands,  each  taking  a  liberal  profit :  First,  into  the 
hands  of  the  planter's  agent,  generally  the  creditor  of  the 
planter,  and  whom  he  charges  from  six  to  twelve  per 
cent  interest  for  loans.  The  agent  sells  the  coffee  to  the 
"  dealer,"  and  charges  the  planter  three  per  cent  of  the 
price  for  his  services.  The  dealer  manipulates  the  coffee, 
mixing  different  sorts  together,  and  puts  it  into  bags. 
He  sells  to  the  exporter  through  a  broker,  who  receives 
fifty  reis  (at  present  about  two  cents)  from  the  dealer, 
and  a  like  amount  from  the  exporter,  on  each  bag.  The 
broker's  charge  has  by  law  been  reduced  to  one  fifth  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  the  coffee,  but  as  yet  the  regulation 
is  not  comphed  with.  Besides  these  several  charges,  there 
are  heavy  expenses  for  cartage.  After  the  coffee  arrives 
at  Kio,  it  is  conveyed  from  the  railway-station  to  the 
agent's  store ;  afterward  to  the  dealer's  store,  and  thence 
to  the  docks  or  place  of  shipment,  being  transported 
each  time  through  narrow  streets  by  mule-power,  in  some 
cases  by  tramway,  and  handled  by  costly  labor.  In  all 
the  various  cartages  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  plantation 
there  is  considerable  wastage. 

Owing  to  the  large  production,  and  the  medium  qual- 
ity of  the  coffee,  its  price  during  the  past  two  or  three  years 


248    BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

has  been  unusually  low,  varying  from  six  to  twelve  cents 
per  pound.  It  liad  not  been  so  cheap  before  since  the  year 
1857.  It  gradually  rose  after  that  year  to  be  worth  sev- 
enteen cents  a  pound  for  "good  first"  in  1864,  then  de- 
clined, and  remained  for  several  years  at  about  eleven 
cents  per  pound,  after  which  it  rose  to  seventeen  cents  in 
1871-72,  and  to  twenty-three  cents  in  1873-74 — a  period 
when  the  crop  was  light. 

A  firm  in  'New  York,  which  had  received  from  Kio 
some  coffee  which  had  been  artificially  colored,  sent  back 
word  to  the  exporter :  "  Don't  paint  any  more  coffee  ;  we 
can  paint  better  here."  When  the  time  comes  that  coffee 
shall  be  cultivated  by  intelligent  labor,  it  will  be  twice  as 
good  as  it  now  is.  Thus,  we  all  have  an  interest  in  the 
progress  and  improvement  of  Brazilian  industry. 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  is  grown  successfully  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  forms  one  of  the  principal  crops. 
None,  however,  appears  to  be  exported ;  on  the  contrary, 
on  account  of  the  expense  of  bringing  it  from  the  interior, 
the  principal  seaports  have  been  compelled  to  import  some 
of  their  supply  from  abroad.  In  recent  years  the  impor- 
tation from  the  River  Plate  to  Rio  has  averaged  about 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  sacks  per  year,  at  say 
two  dollars  per  sack. 

The  Brazilian  maize  is  generally  the  yellow  sort,  of 
medium-sized  kernel,  and  is  produced  the  most  extensively 
in  the  provinces  of  Minas-Geraes  and  Sao  Paulo,  both 
adjoining  the  province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  is  planted 
by  hand  in  the  months  of  September  and  October,  and  is 
usually  hoed  twice.  A  common  way  of  doing  on  new 
lands  is  to  first  cut  the  underbrush,  burn  it,  and  thereby 
kill  the  timber,  and  afterward  plant  the  ground  with  com, 
the  yield  being  about  forty  bushels  to  the  acre.     The 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOOK-RAISINCf.  249 

next,  or  a  second  season  afterward,  a  new  piece  of  timber 
may  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  Naturally  there  is  some 
outcry  against  such  a  devastating  system,  but  it  avails  lit- 
tle. However,  a  few  farmers  are  beginning  to  manure 
the  soil.  A  farm  with  good .  running  water,  and  fair 
soil,  may  be  surely  remunerative  in  raising  corn  and 
hogs. 

The  richest  sugar-producing  district  of  Brazil  lies  on 
the  eastern  border  of  the  province  of  Pernambuco,  where 
it  has  been  under  cultivation  two  hundred  and  fifty  years. 
It  is  linked  in  history  with  hard-fought  wars  between  the 
Portuguese  settlers — who  were  finally  conquerors  of  the 
country — and  the  natives,  the  French,  and  the  Dutch,  and 
still  shows  some  traces  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  Dutch 
government,  and  especially  of  the  administration  of  that 
able  statesman.  Prince  Maurice  of  ISTassau.  The  Dutch 
occupied  an  important  part  of  Brazil,  including  Pernam- 
buco, thirty-seven  years,  from  1624  tQ  1661,  and  then, 
through  the  influence  of  England  and  France,  were  made 
to  yield  it  up  to  Portugal.  It  would  have  been  better  for 
the  rest  of  Brazil,  probably,  if  so  thrifty  a  nationality  had 
remained  as  a  near  neighbor. 

The  cultivation  of  cane  by  the  American  colony  in 
the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  three  hundred  miles  southwest 
of  Kio,  is  in  this  manner:  new  land  is  broken  by  the 
plow ;  joints  of  cane  are  laid  lengthwise  in  the  furrow, 
either  in  January,  February,  or  March,  and  covered.  It 
requires  thirteen  months  for  the  crop  to  mature.  A  sec- 
ond crop  will  spring  up  and  mature  from  the  root  nearly 
as  good  as  the  first,  and  sometimes  a  third  crop.  Planted 
in  January,  it  is  generally  a  foot  or  two  out  of  the  ground 
in  May.  A  field  of  cane  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds, 
and  needs  to  be  hoed  or  worked  with  the  cultivator  four 


250     BPwAZIL:   ITS  OOI^BITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

times.  It  is  usually  cut  in  May,  June,  and  July.  Where 
the  plow  is  used,  farmers  cultivate  six  or  seven  acres  to  the 
hand,  and  subsistence  crops — com,  beans,  etc. — enough  to 
sustain  the  farm.  Mules  are  used  in  plowing,  and  oxen 
invariably  with  carts  for  transportation.  Labor,  and  very 
unreliable,  costs  forty  cents  per  day  for  about  ten  hours' 
work,  by  one  hand,  or  about  ten  dollars  a  month,  food  in- 
cluded. Much  of  the  cane  is  used  for  making  spirits,,  and 
the  necessary  outfit  with  machinery  for  profitably  cultivat- 
ing fifty  acres  of  cane  continuously  will  cost  about  twelve 
thousand  dollars.  Some  of  the  accidents  the  cane-crop  is 
liable  to  are,  frost  when  it  is  tender,  and  fire  when  it  is 
ripe.  Medium  land,  with  some  light  timber,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  American  colony,  can  be  bought  at  three  dollars 
an  acre.  There  are  plantations  in  the  far  interior  which 
have  come  down  intact  through  several  generations,  and 
which,  although  embracing  an  area  of  fifty  or  more  square 
miles,  produce  only  meager  surplus  products.  A  little 
maize,  sugar,  and  rum  will  be  about  all  there  will  be  to 
sell.  Such  of  the  cane- juice  as  can  not  be  conveniently 
made  into  sugar  will  be  put  into  a  vat,  and,  after  ferment- 
ing, will  be  distilled  into  rum ;  and  this  frequently  forms 
the  most  remunerative  part  of  the  crop.  Often  as  any 
way  it  will  be  carried  to  market,  thirty  miles  or  more,  in 
email  dug-out  kegs,  slung  over  the  backs  of  mules.  On 
these  plantations  the  plow  has  never  yet  been  seen. 

What  are  called  the  central  sugar-mills  have  small  iron 
railways  extending  five  or  six  miles  in  different  directions 
over  the  cane-growing  land,  and  they  pay  two  dollars  and 
a  half  to  three  dollars  per  ton  of  cane  delivered  on  the 
cars.  The  industry  is  remunerative.  There  are  some 
splendid  sugar  estates  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Campos, 
province  of  Kio  de  Janeiro.     Brazil's  export  of  sugar 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  251 

averages  about  five  hundred  million  pounds  a  year,  of  tlie 
value  of  fourteen  million  dollars. 

The  poetry  of  hay-making  under  the  Southern  Cross 
will  have  to  wait  till  some  future  age,  perhaps  till  Nature  in 
her  throes  has  elevated  the  Amazon  plains.  In  a  country 
where  there  is  grazing  the  year  round,  hay  can  not  be  ex- 
pected to  figure  largely  as  a  crop.  Still,  there  is  a  demand 
for  it  in  the  cities,  and  the  supply  called  alfalfa  comes 
from  the  Eiver  Plate.  American  sailing-vessels  some- 
times bring  cargoes  of  it  in  bales  from  that  region  to  Eio, 
where  it  is  worth  thirty  dollars  and  upward  a  ton ;  but  its 
fiber  is  coarse  and  it  is  inferior  to  good  timothy.  Some 
forty  thousand  bales  of  hay  are  annually  imported  at 
Eio  from  the  Eiver  Plate,  and  occasionally  a  few  bales 
come  from  Lisbon.  The  kinds  of  grass  which  flourish 
naturally  in  Brazil  are  the  creeping  ginger-grass,  the  most 
common  for  cattle,  called  in  Portuguese  capim  gengihre 
Tasteiro^  and  the  botanical  name  of  which  is  Pasjpalium 
jpastoTTYi  j  and  the  honey-grass,  called  capim  melado, 
and  the  botanical  name  of  which  is  Melnis  glutinosa. 
The  latter  springs  up  spontaneously  after  land  has  been 
cleared  of  timber.  It  is  quite  fragrant,  a  little  sticky 
when  handled,  and  good  in  fattening  cattle,  but  rather 
weakening  for  working  animals.  When  fully  grown,  say 
in  June,  it  is  nearly  two  feet  high,  and  has  a  reddish  top 
like  the  American  red-top  grass ;  patches  and  sides  of  hills 
and  mountains  covered  with  it  in  June  have  a  red  appear- 
ance. There  is  also  a  garden  grass  used  for  lawns  and 
borders,  which  has  a  wide  but  tender  blade. 

Cotton  is  another  leading  crop  of  Brazil,  and  may  be 
grown  in  every  province.  The  annual  export  amounts  to 
some  thirty  million  pounds,  of  the  value  of  two  million 
dollars.     The  cotton-growing  districts  have  fewer  marks 


252     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

of  wealth  than  are  found  in  the  sugar  districts.  In  grow- 
ing cotton,  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  for  example,  it 
is  usual  to  begin  in  July  or  August  to  clear  the  land  and 
burn  the  brush ;  then,  after  a  rain,  to  plow — if  in  a  locality 
where  the  plow  is  used — or  break  the  land  with  the  hoe. 
In  September  or  October  manure  is  sometimes  scattered 
in  furrows  four  or  live  feet  apart ;  afterward  the  furrow 
is  reopened  by  the  plow  and  the  seeds  are  dropped  in  it 
by  hand  and  covered  very  lightly  with  the  plow  or  harrow. 
The  cotton  comes  up  in  about  a  week,  and  two  or  three 
weeks  afterward  is  plowed  and  hoed,  and  thence  on  is 
plowed  and  hoed  every  two  or  three  weeks  until  the  latter 
part  of  January,  in  which  month  it  is  generally  in  blos- 
som. The  picking  commences  about  March,  and  the 
whole  field  is  picked  over  once  in  fifteen  or  twenty  days, 
until  the  crop  is  wholly  gathered,  which  may  be  in  June 
or  July.  It  is  common  to  plant  from  ten  to  twelve 
acres  to  the  hand,  in  addition  to  enough  small  crops  for 
the  home  subsistence.  At  picking-time  the  working 
force  is  frequently  doubled,  and  the  price  of  labor  is 
twelve  to  fifteen  cents  for  picking  thirty-three  pounds. 
The  cotton  is  put  up  in  bales  of  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  pounds,  and  the  average  yield  is  two  and  a  half  bales 
per  acre.  The  gross  return  per  acre  is  about  thirty-two 
dollars.  The  cotton-plant  is  liable  to  damages  from  ants 
and  caterpillars.  The  latter  are  killed  with  Paris-green, 
which,  however,  itself  injures  the  plant  very  much.  At- 
tacks by  the  ants  have  to  be  watched  and  guarded  against 
from  the  time  the  plant  is  up  till  it  is  fully  grown.  The 
common  way  of  destroying  them  is  by  pouring  bisul- 
phide of  carbon  into  their  nests.  Cotton  is  sometimes  cut 
and  the  old  root  left  to  sprout  and  bear  another  crop,  but 
the  practice  is  not  followed  by  the  best  farmers,  as  in- 


AGEIOULTURE  AND  STOOK-RAISINa.  253 

creased  labor  is  required  for  cultivation,  and  it  does  not 
in  any  case  yield  more  than  an  inferior  crop. 

An  important  substitute  for  tlie  potato,  especially 
among  people  of  African  descent,  is  tlie  mandioca,  a  vege- 
table indigenous  to  the  country,  and  found  cultivated  by 
the  natives  on  the  arrival  of  the  first  Europeans.  Like 
the  potato,  it  grows  beneath  the  soil,  and  is  shaped  some- 
what like  a  long  sweet-potato,  though  more  on  the  root 
order,  and  has  a  skin  darker  and  thicker.  The  stalk  is 
taller  and  stiffer  than  that  of  the  common  potato,  and  a 
field  of  it  has  a  bluish-green  color.  Of  the  two  sorts  in 
use,  one  is  cooked  like  the  potato,  but  has  a  firmer  and 
more  nutty  consistency  and  flavor.  The  other  sort  has  a 
poisonous  quality  in  its  green  state,  but  after  a  peculiar 
process  of  fermentation  is  made  into  a  coarse  meal,  the 
farinha  of  Brazil,  which  is  eaten  commonly  by  labor- 
ers in  its  raw  state,  mixed  with  a  fatty  gravy,  and  by  peo- 
ple in  general  after  a  brief  cooking  in  butter.  A  dish  of 
dry  farinha  is  on  every  Brazilian  table,  and  is  eaten 
habitually  mixed  with  stewed  black  beans.  Some  quan- 
tities of  mandioca-meal  have  also  been  exported  to  Europe 
to  be  manufactured  into  tapioca.  The  value  of  the  export 
amounts  to  some  three  hundred  thousand  dollars  a  year. 
About  twenty  million  pounds  of  the  meal  are  annually 
received  at  the  port  of  Rio. 

Rice  is  cultivated  all  over  the  country,  but  principally 
as  an  upland  crop.  It  is  habitually  used  cooked  in  a  little 
fat  and  with  small  bits  of  tomato,  l^ot  enough  is  raised 
for  home  consumption.  Eive  million  pounds  of  rice  of 
domestic  growth  are  annually  received  at  Rio.  Beans, 
and  especially  black  beans,  which  form  the  common  sub- 
sistence, are  often  grown  as  a  separate  crop,  and  are  also 
frequently  planted  in  the  corn-hills  at  the  last  hoeing,  and 
22 


254     BRAZIL:*  ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

matTire  in  three  montlis.  Twenty-five  million  pounds  of 
beans  of  domestic  growtli  are  received  at  Eio  in  the  course 
of  a  year. 

Another  of  Brazil's  important  crops  is  tobacco,  which 
is  grown  throughout  the  empire,  though  the  principal 
tobacco-producing  province  is  Bahia.  Comparing  the 
minute  description  given  by  Antonil  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  with  the  processes  employed  on 
the  great  majority  of  the  tobacco-plantations  to-day,  it 
will  be  seen  that  little  advance  has  been  made.  The  an- 
nual export  is  fifty  million  pounds,  of  the  value  of  from 
three  to  four  million  dollars.  The  export  tax  on  tobacco 
in  Bahia,  national  and  provincial  together,  amounts  to 
eighteen  per  cent. 

The  organizations  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
are  scarcely  worth  notice.  There  is  no  European  coun- 
try, except  Turkey,  so  behindhand  in  such  matters.  A 
thin  agricultural  monthly  magazine  is  published  at  Eio, 
but  it  does  not  as  yet  impart  much  information  on  the 
subject  of  agriculture. 

The  average  wages  of  a  free  working-man  at  agricult- 
ural work,  and  in  contracts  for  five  months,  are  a  milreis 
— thirty-six  cents — a  day,  with  board  and  lodging.  At 
such  wages  he  is  expected  to  do  all  the  work  of  cultivat- 
ing three  thousand  coffee-trees,  and  of  gathering  and  tak- 
ing care  of  the  crop ;  or,  what  is  equivalent,  to  cultivate 
three  and  a  half  acres  of  cane,  yielding  from  sixteen  hun- 
dred to  six  thousand  four  hundred  pounds  of  sugar,  worth 
six  dollars  per  hundred  pounds.  He  would  not  be  able 
to  cut  all  of  the  cane  grown  on  three  and  a  half  acres,  as 
it  has  to  be  cut  in  a  short  time,  but  he  would  do  his  part 
of  the  cutting.  Besides,  he  would,  in  cultivating  other 
products,  like  maize,  beans,  and  vegetables,  and  in  tending 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  255 

Btock,  raise  the  provisions  necessary  for  the  subsistence  of 
himself  and  family. 

The  means  of  diversion  and  recreation  among  this 
class  are  limited.  Perhaps  one  free  agricultural  working- 
man  in  every  ten— say  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  advanced — can  read ;  but  among  wom- 
en the  number  that  can  read  is  less.  On  Sundays  and 
holidays  the  men  visit  the  neighboring  village  or  town, 
where  sometimes  there  is  a  horse-race.  Once  in  a  w^hile 
an  ordinary  circus  comes  round,  which  they  attend.  In  a 
community  of  small  farmers,  when  on  a  holiday  a  num- 
ber arc  assembled  socially,  pitching  quoits  is  not  an  uncom- 
mon amusement.  On  such  occasions,  the  women  present, 
young  and  old,  will  sit  looking  on,  smoking  tobacco  in 
pipes,  a  habit  which  is  very  common  among  women  in  the 
rural  districts.  Fishing  with  the  rod  is  a  common  diver- 
sion of  both  sexes.  At  weddings,  baptisms,  and  chris- 
tenings, when  a  large  party  of  relatives  and  friends  are 
assembled,  there  is  dancing  on  the  earth  floor  of  the 
dwelling,  when  for  music  some  of  the  men  play  a  monot- 
onous strain  on  the  banjo,  the  violin  also  being  some- 
times used,  and  the  women  accompanying  on  the  Castanet 
and  tambourine.  Thrashing  "  bees  "  of  both  sexes  are 
frequent,  when  the  people  tread  out  the  beans  and  rice 
with  their  feet.  In  some  localities  these  gatherings  afford 
almost  the  only  opportunity  which  the  young  w^omen 
have  to  display  their  good  dresses,  of  which  they  some- 
times bring  a  trunlrful,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  the 
dance,  through  the  night,  appear  in  different  gowns. 

In  these  communities  the  subsistence  consists  of  man- 
dioca-meal,  stewed  black  beans,  chickens,  which  are  usu- 
ally very  abundant,  pork,  rice,  sweet-potatoes,  and  yams. 
Coffee,  which  is  freshly  roasted  every  two  or  three  days,  is 


256     BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

served  frequently  during  the  day,  and  always,  among  rich 
and  poor,  when  a  visitor  comes  in.  It  is  served  in  small 
cups,  without  milk,  and  is  sweetened  with  home-made 
sugar.  Water  is  always  kept  ready  to  boil,  in  order  to 
prepare  coffee  at  short  notice.  Women,  as  well  as  men, 
occasionally  take  a  glass  of  the  rum  of  the  country  (which 
smells  much  better  than  it  tastes),  but  the  former  scarcely 
ever,  and  the  latter  seldom,  drink  to  great  excess.  Women 
go  to  confession  once  a  year.  As  bearing  on  this  usage,  I 
may  state  that  a  perfectly  authentic  case  has  been  related 
to  me  of  flagrant  breach  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  a 
priest,  though  probably  unintentional.  In  many  of  the 
rural  communities  women  seem  to  do  more  work  than  the 
men.  Besides  labor  in  the  house,  they  carry  meals,  often 
a  great  distance,  to  the  men  in  the  fields,  and  come  home 
lugging  wood.  JS'ot  unfrequently,  in  the  more  remote 
regions,  men  beat  their  wives,  and  the  happiest  couples 
in  such  cases  are  those  who  are  not  legally  married,  and 
who  live  together  but  a  short  time.  The  walls  and  roofs 
of  the  dwellings  of  these  people  are  often  in  an  unfinished 
state ;  but  "  when  it  rains,  the  man  can't  do  the  work ; 
when  it  don't  rain,  the  work  is  unnecessary." 

Stock-raising  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  pursuits  in 
Brazil,  and  is  largely  carried  on  in  the  south  border  prov- 
ince of  Rio  G-rande  do  Sul,  which  is  estimated  to  contain 
ten  million  head  of  cattle.  The  American  vice-consul 
there,  Mr.  William  A.  Preller,  states  that  the  industry  is 
almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  natives.  It  is  very 
difficult  for  strangers  to  acquire  suitable  lands,  they  being 
transmitted  to  heirs  and  frequently  allotted  as  marriage 
portions.  The  owner  of  a  good  piece  of  herding-land 
will  make  almost  any  sacrifice  to  purchase  any  adjoining 
lot  that  may  be  for  sale,  rather  than  let  it  go  into  strange 


AGRIOULTUKE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  257 

hands  ;  and  ready  casli  is  commonly  scarce  with  holders 
of  leao-ues  of  breeding-land  and  hundreds  of  cattle. 

The  estanceiero^  as  the  larger  cattle-raiser  is  called, 
"  little  acquainted  with  the  luxuries  of  town-life,  lives 
almost  in  primitive  simplicity,  and  with  an  abundance  of 
meat,  yerba-mate  tea,  and  mandioca-flour,  for  himseK, 
family,  and  servants ;  a  good  stock  of  plate  and  jewelry 
in  his  house,  good  horses,  with  rich  trappings  for  himself, 
and  an  occasional  game  of  cards  with  his  neighbors,  he 
leads  a  lazy:  aniL_easy__life,  suitable  to  the  temperament  of 
the  genuine  Brazilian." 

The  value  of  land  varies  in  proportion  to  the  quality 
of  the  pasture,  water-supply,  and  situation,  say  from  ten 
to  thirty  thousand  dollars  for  a  tract  of  three  thousand 
bra^as  square,  which  would  be  a  tract  over  four  miles 
square,  or  over  ten  thousand  acres.  Stock  cattle,  mostly 
cows  and  yearUngs,  with  a  few  bulls,  sell  at  from  five 
to  six  dollars,  one  with  the  other,  but,  for  butchery 
consumption,  twelve  to  thirteen  dollars  is  the  current 
price  for  good  selection.  It  is  in  part  from  the  hides  of 
these  cattle  that  the  Americans  get  their  leather.  The 
sale  is  often  made  on  the  raising-ground,  but  not  infre- 
quently the  cattle  are  sent  in  a  herd  of  from  three  to 
five  hundred  head  for  public  sale  at  Pelotas,  the  center 
of  the  saladeros^  and  where  the  slaughter  amounts  to 
two  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  head  a  year.  The  breed 
is  principally  the  long-horned  cattle  originally  brought 
from  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  of  large  size.  Some  of  the 
cows,  which  are  large  and  have  long  horns,  yield  a  good 
quantity  of  milk.  One  of  these  cows,  of  the  breed  called 
Caragua,  native  of  the  province  of  Parana,  of  which  I 
had  a  photograph  taken  at  Piracicaba,  measured  four 
feet  five  inches  in  height,  eight  feet  two  inches  length 


258     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

of  body,  and  four  feet  seven  incites  between  tips  of 
horns.     Age,  nine  years. 

Mr.  Preller  states  that  the  means  of  transportation 
are  very  inferior,  though  gradually  improving,  as  several 
bridges  have  been  constructed  over  the  rivers,  which, 
from  streamlets  easily  waded  in  the  summer,  become, 
during  the  winter  months,  or  after  heavy  rains,  most 
violent  torrents,  and  quite  impracticable  for  the  passage 
of  cattle  or  wagons,  causing  often  a  delay  of  many  days. 
The  roads,  he  says,  have  no  claim  whatever  to  the  name, 
and  are  merely  the  tracks  made  by  the  ox-carts  and  hoofs 
of  passing  cattle  driven  in  to  the  saladeros  for  slaughter. 
If  the  transport,  which  remains  to  be  seen,  can  be  made 
by  xailway,  the  cattle  will  then  be  brought  to  market  in 
fewer  hours  than  days  now  actually  necessary;  and  in 
good  condition,  instead  of  worn  and  diminished  in  num- 
ber through  casualties  on  the  road,  caused  by  drought,  in- 
sufficient nourishment,  and  passage  of  flooded  rivers,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  tribe  of  drivers  and  horses  indispen- 
sable for  the  safe  driving. 

In  regard  to  fruit-culture  in  Brazil,  I  w^ould  state  that 
neither  olives,  figs,  nor  lemons  are  grown  for  commercial 
purposes.  Figs  are  grown,  and  are  occasionally  seen  fresh 
in  the  market.  The  lemons  are  small,  and  have  a  green 
skin.  Grape-culture  appears  as  yet  to  be  in  its  infancy, 
though  German  and  other  colonists  are  giving  increased 
attention  to  it.  Grapes  are  successfully  grown  in  the  in- 
terior at  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  feet,  as  well  as  on 
the  warmer  lowland  of  the  coast.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  on  sloping  ground  with  gravelly  soil.  At  Kio, 
Isabella  grapes  of  domestic  growth  retail  at  twenty  to 
forty  cents  a  pound.  Oranges  grow  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  but  it  is  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Eio  and  Bahia 


AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK-RAISING.  259 

that  really  good  ones  are  produced.  Large  quantities  are 
consumed  in  the  country,  and  a  few  million  are  exported 
in  bulk  to  the  neighboring  countries,  Uruguay  and  the 
Argentine  Republic. 

As  Pemambuco  is  distinguished  for  its  good  pine- 
apples, so  is  Bahia — about  midway  between  that  port 
and  Rio — distinguished  for  its  large,  sweet,  and  delicious 
oranges,  the  favorite  variety  being  the  Umbigo,  which  is 
without  seeds.  It  begins  to  ripen  about  May  and  lasts  till 
September.  I  succeeded  in  bringing  some  of  these  oranges 
in  a  good  condition  from  Bahia  to  the  United  States. 
Sweet  and  excellent  oranges  are  also  produced  exten- 
sively in  the  vicinity  of  Rio,  though  there  is  a  tendency 
to  crowd  them  on  the  market  before  they  are  fully  ripe. 
The  old  Brazilians  say  that  oranges  are  not  fit  to  eat  till 
the  month  of  August.  The  more  common  kind  is  the 
Siletta,  which  when  ripe  has  a  sweet  and  delicate  flavor 
not  much  inferior  to  the  finest  Florida  oranges.  It  also 
has  the  size  and  form  of  a  good  Florida  orange.  "Wlien 
ripe  the  sldn  has  a  tinge  of  green  mixed  with  yellow. 
These  Silettas,  when  they  first  appear  in  the  market,  say 
in  the  month  of  April,  are  retailed  at  eight  cents  each, 
while  during  the  month  of  June  or  July  they  can  be  had 
at  a  cent  each.  This  variety  is  the  orange  of  commerce, 
and  of  which,  as  I  have  said,  large  quantities  are  exported 
in  bulk  to  the  River  Plate  countries.  The  price  paid  for 
them  at  the  orchard  in  June,  say  at  Yilla  Kova,  an  easy 
day's  carriage  from  Rio,  partly  by  water,  is  two  dollars 
per  thousand. 

Another  variety,  and  which  is  much  used  for  the 
table,  is  the  Tangerina ;  it  is  smaller  than  the  Siletta,  has 
an  orange-yellow  skin  that  breaks  easily  in  peeling,  and 
an  aromatic  odor ;  it  contains  many  seeds,  and  has  some- 


260     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

what  of  a  strawberry  flavor  and  color.  It  ripens  at  the 
same  time  as  the  Siletta.  Another  good  variety  is  the 
Natal,  which  is  particularly  valuable  for  its  ripening 
about  the  time  of  Christmas. 

There  is  not  much  information  of  value  to  communi- 
cate in  respect  of  cultivation.  There  is  none  of  that  en- 
thusiasm in  orange-growing  in  Brazil  that  there  is  in 
Florida.  One  sees  orange-trees  in  almost  every  garden, 
but  many  of  them  bear  only  natural  and  worthless  fruit. 
Generally  orange-orchards  Avhich  yield  fruit  for  the  mar- 
ket are  situated-  on  low  and  somewhat  sandy  land,  the 
selection  being  influenced  by  the  facilities  of  water  trans- 
portation. The  young  trees  are  planted  in  the  months  of 
April  and  May,  though  sometimes  they  are  planted  in 
March ;  also  in  February,  if  the  latter  month  be  rainy. 
In  the  following  August  the  trees  are  budded,  provided, 
as  is  usually  the  case,  they  have  got  a  good  start.  The 
trees  are  planted  about  fifteen  feet  apart ;  begin  to  bear 
in  five  or  six  years,  yielding  twenty  to  thirty  oranges 
each,  and  then  continue  to  increase  for  ten  years  after, 
when  they  are  in  full  bearing  and  produce  from  two  to 
three  hundred  oranges  per  tree.  They  continue  fruitful 
thirty  years  or  more,  according  to  cultivation.  In  the 
most  favorable  circumstances  a  tree  will  produce  one  thou- 
sand oranges  in  a  year.  Trees  fully  grown  are  pruned  a 
little  twice  a  year. 

The  oranges  are  gathered  by  knocking  them  from  the 
limbs  with  a  pole,  so  that  a  piece  of  the  twig  two  or  three 
inches  in  length  adheres  to  them,  and  are  allowed  to  lie 
on  the  ground  a  few  hours  to  dry  before  being  picked 
up.  One  man  will  knock  off  and  gather  about  three  thou- 
sand oranges  per  day,  at  wages  of  one  milreis  per  day,  and 
his  meals.    It  costs  about  sixty  to  eighty  dollars  a  year  for 


AGRICULTURE  AiTD  STOCK-RAISING.  261 

the  labor  to  cultivate  and  take  care  of  one  thousand  trees. 
Different  crops  are  sometimes  raised  between  the  trees 
when  they  are  young.  Oranges  are  liable  to  attack  and 
injury  by  a  large  black  ant,  which  eats  the  leaves,  and 
which  is  destroyed  by  pouring  bisulphide  of  carbon  into 
the  ants'  nest  in  the  ground ;  also  by  a  black  bee,  about 
the  size  of  a  common  fly,  and  which  is  destroyed  by  burn- 
ing its  nest.  Brazilian  oranges  will  stand  a  voyage  of 
about  twenty  days.  They  are  exported  to  some  extent 
from  the  northern  ports  of  Brazil  to  the  United  States. 

Kio  buys  many  good  apples  and  pears  from  the  Kiver 
Plate  countries.  For  some  years  a  large  ship-load  of 
Baldwin  apples  has  arrived  at  Rio  from  Boston,  either 
in  December  or  January,  which  have  generally  been  re- 
tailed at  eight  cents  apiece. 

Of  small  fruits  there  are  scarcely  any  in  the  Rio  mar- 
ket. Strawberries  could  be  cultivated,  but  they  are  sold 
as  yet  only  by  the  saucerful.  There  are  neither  black- 
berries, raspberries,  blueberries,  gooseberries,  nor  cur- 
rants. However,  a  small  blackberry  and  a  species  of 
raspberry  are  found  growing  wild  on  the  highlands 
about  Rio,  and  doubtless  they  could  be  cultivated. 


CHAPTEK  XVI. 

THE   AMAZON   VALLEY. 

Beazil  possesses,  in  the  Amazon,  the  greatest  river 
system  in  the  world.  Marked  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  last  twenty  years  in  the  means  of  travel  up 
and  down  its  waters.  The  point  of  starting  for  up  river 
is  the  city  of  Pard,  situated  on  the  Pard  Eiver,  and  which 
is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  outlets  of  the  Amazon. 
I  visited  that  city  on  the  American  steamer  Advance,  in 
July,  1885.  It  looks  low  from  the  water,  yet  has  a  fair 
elevation,  and  many  of  its  streets  are  well  paved  and  have 
a  modem  appearance.  The  passengers,  ladies  as  well  as 
men,  aU  laid  in  a  stock  of  "  Panama ''  hats,  which  there 
can  be  bought  for  about  fifty  cents  each.  In  going  up 
from  the  ocean  the  Para  River,  after  getting  within  a 
f6w  miles  of  the  city,  resembles  the  Missouri  in  its 
broadest  part,  both  in  the  light  color  of  the  water  and  the 
low,  wooded  banks. 

The  Amazon  Steam  Navigation  Company  receives  a 
subsidy  from  the  Brazilian  Government  of  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  a  year,  and  runs  screw  and  other  steamers 
regularly  from  Pard  to  distant  ports  on  the  upper  Amazon 
and  its  principal  tributaries.  The  traveler  or  merchant 
can  in  about  ten  days  from  the  time  he  leaves  the  United 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  263 

States  reacli  Para,  and  in  fifteen  to  twenty  days  more 
may  find  himself  almost  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  with 
no  more  discomfort  than  is  experienced  in  a  steamboat 
trip  on  the  Missouri.  Good  steamers  leave  Pard  the  Ist, 
10th,  and  20th  of  each  month  for  Manaos  on  the  Amazon, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Negro,  nine  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-seven miles  from  Para,  stopping  at  about  nine  places, 
and  making  the  trip  in  eight  days ;  first-class  fare,  board 
included,  one  hundred  milreis,  or  say  forty  dollars.  There 
is  a  good  deal  of  difference  in  the  steamers.  Probably  on 
the  most  of  them  passengers  will  sleep  at  night  in  their 
own  hammocks,  swung  over  the  deck  in  a  miscellaneous 
crowd,  where  pigs  scamper  over  the  deck  in  the  capacity 
of  scavengers.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  steamers 
running  as  far  up  as  Mandos,  like  the  Mandos,  of  the  Bra- 
zilian Northern  ISTavigation  Company,  which  are  as  fine 
as  any  ocean-steamer. 

A  steamer  leaves  Mandos  the  28th  of  each  month  for 
Iqutos  in  Peru ;  distance,  eleven  hundred  and  fifty-two 
miles,  and  fare  fifty  dollars.  To  Tabatinga,  on  the  bound- 
ary of  Peru,  the  fare  is  thirty-five  dollars.  A  steamer 
leaves  Para  for  San  Antonio,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on 
the  Madeira  Kiver,  the  Tth  of  every  month;  distance, 
seventeen  hundred  and  twenty-three  miles ;  fare,  eighty 
dollars.  A  steamer  leaves  Pard  for  up  the  Purus,  another 
of  the  remarkable  navigable  streams  of  Brazil,  the  lYth  of 
every  month.  Distance  to  Anajas,  the  end  of  the  route, 
twenty-three  hundred  and  eighty-seven  miles.  The  fare 
to  Hyutanahan  is  eighty-six  dollars,  and  the  distance  nine- 
teen hundred  and  ninety-seven  miles.  For  the  nver  Ne- 
gro a  steamer  leaves  Pard  the  10th  of  every  month ;  fare 
to  Santa  Isabel,  a  distance  of  thirteen  hundred  and  fifty 
miles,  eighty-five  dollars.     In  engaging  transportation  for 


264     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

a  long  trip  a  passenger  would  do  well  to  obtain,  if  pos- 
sible, a  statement  in  writing  of  the  kind  of  accommoda- 
tions and  subsistence  that  are  to  be  furnished,  and  then 
hold  the  company  to  their  contract.  The  living  ought  to 
be  good,  and  to  comprise  fresh  beef,  mutton,  poultry,  and 
fish,  of  which  there  are  an  abundance  along  the  river. 
The  tendency,  however,  of  many  steamers  is,  after  get- 
ting the  money  of  the  passenger,  to  feed  him  on  a  miser- 
able diet  of  canned  and  preserved  food. 

The  officers  on  these  steamers  are  Brazilians  and  the 
crews  Indians.  The  latter,  however,  are  not  only  very 
docile,  but  are  expert  navigators.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact 
that  a  considerable  part  of  the  fuel  consumed  by  the 
steamers  is  coal  brought  from  England,  the  inhabitants 
along  the  Amazon  being  so  absorbed  in  the  production  of 
rubber,  especially  when  it  is  fetching  a  high  price,  that 
enough  labor  can  not  be  had  to  furnish  the  steamers  with 
wood.  Americans  and  Europeans  proposing  a  journey 
up  the  Amazon,  should,  of  course,  come  with  as  little 
baggage  as  practicable.  A  gentleman  would  do  well  to 
be  provided  Avith  two  summer  suits  of  wool  and  a  thicker 
suit  adapted  for  autumn  or  cold  weather,  as  a  day  of 
windy  and  cold  weather  may  occasionally  be  experienced. 
Boots  and  shoes  with  thick  or  cork  soles  are  desirable ; 
also  some  clothing  suitable  for  wet  weather ;  and,  lastly, 
a  hammock,  in  case  it  is  intended  to  pass  a  night  ashore 
up  the  river.  The  wet  season  is  from  January  to  May ; 
and,  of  course,  there  is  occasionally  rain  in  the  rest  of  the 
year.  The  best  time  for  a  journey  on  the  Amazon  is  in 
the  dry  season,  say  June,  July,  August,  September,  and 
October. 

In  going  from  Eio  de  Janeiro  to  Para,  passage  can  be 
taken  on  the  well-managed  steamers  of  the  Northern 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  265 

Brazil  Navigation  Company,  which  leave  three  times  a 
month,  calling  at  seven  ports,  and  make  the  trip  in  four- 
teen days,  the  distance  being  twenty-one  hundred  miles ; 
fare,  ninety  dollars.  Also,  the  new  American  steamers 
call  at  Pard  on  their  return  voyage  from  Rio,  and  at  three 
other  ports  between  Rio  and  Para. 

The  rising  city  of  Para  is  the  gateway  of  the  Amazon 
trade.  From  the  ocean  you  go  up,  as  I  have  said,  a  bay 
and  river  to  that  city,  and  afterward  come  round  into  the 
Amazon  proper.  The  place  has  taken  a  fresh  start  in 
recent  years,  and  looks  forward,  as  well  it  may,  to  become 
a  large  and  splendid  city. 

A  well-informed  American  now  residing  and  engaged 
in  business  in  the  Amazon  Yalley,  and  who  has  traveled 
through  it  a  good  deal,  has  just  furnished  me  some  fresh 
information  in  respect  to  people  and  things  there.  It  is 
impossible,  he  says,  to  give  the  average  width  of  country 
in  the  Amazon  Yalley  that  is  overflowed  during  the  high- 
water  season.  The  land  bordering  all  of  the  rivers  flow- 
ing north  into  the  Amazon  is  overflowed  during  the  high- 
water  season,  so  much  so  that  work  in  the  rubber  districts 
is  entirely  suspended,  and  the  houses  are  elevated  from 
three  to  six  feet  above  the  ground.  The  rivers  flowing 
south  into  the  Amazon,  such  as  the  Rio  Negro,  Japura, 
etc.,  are  principally  bordered  by  high  land  which  is  not 
subject  to  overflow.  The  land  most  suitable  for  agricult- 
ure is  between  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  Macapa, 
a  town  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  It  is 
there  generally  high,  the  soil  fertile,  and  easily  accessible, 
as  steamers  pass  nearly  every  day.  The  provincial  gov- 
ernments are  doing  all  possible  to  encourage  immigration ; 
consequently,  land  can  be  bought  at  a  low  price  by  mak- 
ing a  petition  to  the  Government.  The  only  real  protit- 
23 


266     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

able  agricultural  pursuit  is  tlie  raising  of  cattle.  A  bul- 
lock sells  at  one  hundred  and  ten  milreis,  saj  forty-four 
dollars.  Sugar-cane,  rice,  and  tobacco  grow  finely,  but  in 
1885  there  was  very  little  profit  in  these  articles.  A  new 
settler  would  require  a  capital  of  at  least  two  thousand 
dollars  to  begin  with,  to  clear  the  land,  build  his  house, 
buy  his  stock  and  outfit.  At  present,  however,  there  is 
no  immigration  of  agricultural  settlers.  The  drawbacks 
a  foreign  immigrant  would  meet  are  inability  to  speak 
the  language,  not  being  acclimated  and  consequent  lia- 
bility to  fevers.  A  person  coming  direct  from  a  northern 
country  can  not  subject  himself  to  out-door  work  for  the 
first  year  on  account  of  the  heat.  There  are  no  means  of 
communication  or  of  transportation  otherwise  than  by 
water.  The  interior  of  the  country  back  from  the  navi- 
gable streams  is  unknown.  The  Government  sends  mis- 
sionaries among  the  Indians  for  the  purpose  of  civiHzing 
them.  The  prevailing  and  best  opinion  of  the  half-breeds 
is  very  poor;  they  are  a  lazy  and  troublesome  class  of 
people,  and  much  inferior  to  the  original  stock. 

The  every-day  food  of  the  common  class  of  people  is 
farinha,  rice,  dried  beef,  fish,  and  game.  The  part  which 
women  take  in  supporting  the  family  is  simply  to  attend 
to  the  domestic  affairs.  With  regard  to  the  physical  and 
moral  improvement  of  the  people  all  that  one  can  say  is 
that  there  is  room  for  improvement.  Morals  are  at  a 
very  low  ebb.  Tlie  usual  means  of  amusement  and  recre- 
ation are  fishing  and  shooting.  Gambling  is  very  com- 
mon ;  yet  some  progress  is  being  made  in  the  intellectual 
and  economical  condition  of  the  people.  There  is  no 
retrograde  movement,  and  in  fact  the  contrary.  The  low- 
er class  are  superstitious  respecting  their  religion.  The 
principal  occupations  are  gathering  rubber,  nuts,  piassava, 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  267 

and  fishing.  As  a  general  rule,  a  laborer  spends  all  that 
he  earns.  The  habit  of  saving  seems  to  be  entirely  un- 
known to  the  lower  class.  A  very  small  proportion  of 
the  people,  as  a  rule,  pay  their  debts — about  a  quarter 
part  the  past  year. 

The  testimony  of  my  infonnant  is  that  travel  on  the 
steamers  between  Para  and  Manaos  is  comparatively  com- 
fortable, although  the  table  is  not  luxurious.  Sailing-ves- 
sels which  pass  between  those  towns  are  towed. 

As  to  the  timber  products  of  the  forest,  cedar  is  the 
only  wood  exported,  and  this  industry  does  not  pay  very 
well,  owing  to  the  high  rates  of  freight  to  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  and  the  labor  being  also  high — ^four  to 
five  mih-eis  per  day.  As  to  serpents  and  wild  beasts,  my 
informant  states  that,  having  traveled  some  thousand 
miles  on  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  he  has  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  greater  part  of  the  stories  about 
such  animals  has  been  "  manufactured  to  make  books  in- 
teresting," 

"  On  the  whole,"  he  winds  up  by  saying,  "  I  should 
not  advise  any  of  our  Americans  to  immigrate  here,  as  I 
consider  that  we  have  much  better  openings  at  home  for 
our  people.  There  are  a  number  of  Americans  on  the 
Amazon  engaged  in  agriculture  who  bitterly  regret  hav- 
ing come  to  this  country,  and  who  are  only  struggling  to 
make  a  little  money  to  allow  them  to  return.  It  is  a  very 
serious  matter  to  encourage  immigration  of  northern  peo- 
ple to  come  to  a  climate  like  this,  as  there  is  great  danger 
of  sickness." 

Mr.  Alfred  R.  Wallace,  an  able  and  unwearied  English 
naturalist,  and  author  of  "  Travels  on  the  Amazon  and 
Eio  'Negro"  arrived  at  Para  in  a  sailing-vessel  from  Liver- 
pool, May  26,  184:8.     The  city  then  contained  a  popula- 


268     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tion  of  fifteen  thousand,  was  surrounded  by  dense  forest 
and  overtopped  by  palms  and  plantains.  He  hired  an 
old  negro  man  named  Isidora  for  a  cook  and  servant-of- 
all-work,  and  regularly  commenced  liousekeeping,  learn- 
ing Portuguese,  and  investigating  the  natural  produc- 
tions of  the  country.  In  what  he  saw  he  was  on  the 
whole  disappointed.  The  weather  was  not  so  hot,  the 
people  were  not  so  peculiar,  the  vegetation  was  not  so 
strildng  as  the  glowing  pictures  he  had  been  brooding 
over ;  and  he  sensibly  remarks  :  "  Travelers  who  crowd 
into  one  description  all  the  wonders  aud  novelties  which 
it  took  them  weeks  and  months  to  observe,  must  produce 
an  erroneous  impression  on  the  reader,  and  cause  him 
when  he  visits  the  spot  to  experience  much  disappoint- 
ment." Bits  of  gardens  and  waste  ground  intervening 
between  the  houses,  fenced  in  with  rotten  palings,  and 
filled  with  rank  weeds  and  a  few  banana-plants,  looked  to 
him  strange  and  unsightly.  His  general  impression  of 
the  city  of  Para  was  not  very  favorable.  The  pirarucu 
fish,  dried,  with  farinha,  formed  the  chief  subsistence  of 
the  native  population,  and  in  the  interior  was  often  the 
only  thing  to  be  obtained.  It  looked  much  like  a  dry 
cowhide  grated  up  into  fibers  and  pressed  into  cakes,  was 
boiled  or  slightly  roasted,  and,  mixed  with  vinegar,  oil, 
pepper,  onions,  and  farinha,  made  a  savory  mess  for  a  per- 
son with  a  strong  stomach.  The  palmeto,  another  article 
of  subsistence,  was  procured  from  the  Assai  palm,  which 
was  common,  growing  in  the  forest  sometimes  to  a  height 
of  eighty  feet,  slender,  with  smooth  stem,  and  very  beau- 
tiful. 

Only  a  few  miles  above  Para  ia  the  mouth  of  the  Tocan- 
tins,  one  of  the  mighty  rivers  of  the  Amazon  basin,  and 
running  due  north.     Mr.  Wallace,  in  the  latter  part  of  Au- 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  269 

gust,  went  up  that  river  for  a  trip  of  a  few  weeks.  At 
Baiao,  in  September,  he  writes :  "  All  round  the  village  for 
some  miles  on  the  dry  liighland  are  coffee-plantations  and 
second-growth  forest.  Soil,  red  clav."  A  tree  common  in 
Brazil  he  sees  there — a  large  leguminous  tree  covered  with 
clusters  of  pink  and  white  flowers  and  large,  pale-green, 
flat  pods.  "The  depths  of  the  virgin  forest,"  he  says, 
"are  solemn  and  grand,  but  there  is  nothing  in  this 
country  to  surpass  the  beauty  of  our  river  and  woodland 
scenery.  ...  In  the  second-growth  woods,  in  the  Campos, 
and  in  many  other  places,  there  is  nothing  to  tell  any  one 
but  a  naturalist  that  he  is  out  of  Europe.  ...  At  the 
Falls  the  central  channel  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide, 
bounded  by  rocks,  with  a  deep  and  very  powerful  stream 
rushing  down  in  an  unbroken  sweep  of  dark-green  waters, 
and  producing  eddies  and  whirlpools.  .  .  .  On  both  sides 
of  the  river,  as  far  as  the  sight  extends,  is  an  undulating 
country,  from  four  to  five  hundred  feet  high,  covered 
with  forests,  the  commencement  of  the  elevated  plains  of 
Brazil."  The  sounds  at  night  on  the  Tocantins  were: 
"  One  sort  of  frogs  with  usual  croak,  another  like  a  dis- 
tant railway-train  approaching,  another  like  the  sound  of  a 
blacksmith  hammering  on  an  anvil ;  also  terrific  noise  of 
the  howling,  the  shrill  grating  whistle  of  cicadas  and  lo- 
custs, and  peculiar  notes  of  aquatic  birds." 

Summing  up  in  regard  to  this  little  side  excursion,  he 
says :  "  In  the  districts  we  passed  through,  cotton,  coffee, 
and  rice  might  be  grown  in  any  quantity  and  of  the  finest 
quality.  The  navigation  is  always  safe  and  uninterrupted, 
and  the  whole  country  so  intersected  by  igarepes  and 
rivers  that  every  estate  has  water-carriage  for  its  produc- 
tions. ...  A  man  can  work  as  well  here  as  in  the  hot 
months  in  England,  and,  if  he  will  only  work  three  hours 


270     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

in  tlie  momirig  and  three  in  the  evening,  he  will  produce 
more  of  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life  than  by 
twelve  hours'  daily  labor  at  home.  We  returned  safely  to 
Para,  September  30th,  just  five  weeks  from  the  day  we 
left.  We  had  not  had  a  wet  day,  yet  found  that,  as  usual, 
there  had  been  at  Para  a  shower  and  a  thunder-storm 
every  second  or  third  day." 

He  went  out  into  the  alluvial  country  a  short  journey 
from  Para,  and  witnessed,  in  one  of  the  numerous  lakes 
abounding  in  fish,  a  hunt  for  alligators,  which  were 
captured  as  a  business,  for  their  oil.  "  Hung  our  ham- 
mock for  the  night  in  a  little,  dirty,  ruined  hut,  from 
which  a  short  time  before  an  onga  (jaguar)  had  carried 
away  a  large  bundle  of  fish."  As  many  as  thirty  alliga- 
tors of  large  size  were  captured  in  a  day.  "  In  the  even- 
ing, after  the  alhgator-hunt,  the  negroes  sang  several 
hymns  as  a  thanksgiving  for  having  escaped  their  jaws." 

Another  trip  was  made  up  the  Guama  River,  which 
comes  in  from  the  southeast,  near  Para,  and  its  tributary, 
the  Capim.  A  short  distance  up  the  former  the  banks 
are  rather  undulating,  with  many  pretty  estates.  "  We 
went  pleasantly  along"  (in  a  canoe  on  the  Capim)  "for 
two  or  three  days,  the  country  being  prettily  diversified 
with  cane-fields,  rice-grounds,  and  houses  built  by  the 
early  Portuguese  settlers,  with  elegant  little  chapels  at- 
tached, and  cottages  for  the  negroes  and  Indians,  all  much 
superior  in  appearance  aud  taste  to  anything  erected  now." 

Finally,  Mr.  Wallace  embarked  in  a  canoe  for  a  voyage 
of  five  hundred  miles  up  the  Amazon  to  Santarem,  and 
he  writes :  "In  about  twelve  days  after  leaving  Para  we 
were  in  the  Amazon  itself.  ...  We  now  felt  the  influ- 
ence of  the  easteriy  wind,  which  during  the  whole  of  the 
summer  montlis  blows  pretty  steadily  up  the  Amazon,  and 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  271 

enables  vessels  to  make  way  against  its  powerful  current. 
Sometimes  we  had  thunder-storms,  with  violent  squalls. 
.  .  .  The  most  striking  features  of  the  Amazon  are  its 
vast  expanse  of  smooth  water,  generally  from  three  to  six 
miles  wide ;  its  pale  yellowish-olive  color ;  the  great  beds 
of  aquatic  grass  which  line  its  shores,  large  masses  of 
which  are  often  detached  and  form  floating  islands ;  the 
quantity  of  fruits  and  leaves  and  great  trunks  of  trees 
which  it  carries  down ;  and  its  level  banks  clad  with  lofty, 
unbroken  forest.  In  places  the  white  stems  and  leaves  of 
the  cecropias  give  a  peculiar  aspect,  and  in  others  the 
straight,  dark  tninl^  of  lofty  forest-trees  form  a  living 
wall  along  the  water's  edge.  ^Numerous  flocks  of  parrots 
and  the  great  red  and  yellow  macaws  fly  across  every 
morning  and  evening,  uttering  their  hoarse  cries.  Herons 
and  ducks  are  numerous,  but  most  characteristic  are  the 
gulls  and  terns.  All  night  long  their  cries  are  heard  over 
the  sand-banks.  ...  On  the  north  bank  of  the  Amazon, 
for  about  two  hundred  miles,  are  ranges  of  low  hills, 
which,  as  well  as  the  country  between  them,  are  partly 
bare  and  partly  covered  with  brush  and  thickets.  They 
vary  from  three  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  high,  and 
extend  inland.  .  .  .  After  passing  them  there  are  no  more 
hills  visible  from  the  river  for  more  than  two  thousand 
miles,  till  we  reach  the  lowest  range  of  the  Andes." 

After  a  voyage  of  twenty-eight  days  he  reached  San- 
tarem,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tapajos,  another  big  river 
flowing  from  the  south,  and  whose  blue,  transparent 
waters  formed  a  most  pleasing  contrast  to  the  turbid 
stream  of  the  Amazon.  Santarem  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  a  slope,  with  a  fine  sandy  beach,  and  its  trade  consisted 
principally  in  Brazil-nuts,  salsaparila,  farinha,  and  salt 
fish.     The  village  of  Mbnte-Alegre,  which  he  had  passed 


272      BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

on  tlic  nortli  shore,  lie  describes  as  situated  on  a  hill  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  tlie  water's  edge.  There  were 
no  neat  inclosures  or  gardens,  nothing  but  weeds  and  rub- 
bish on  every  side.  The  trade  was  in  cacao,  fish,  cala- 
bashes, and  cattle.  The  cacao  was  grown  on  the  low 
lands  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  all  planted  on 
cleared  ground  fully  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  did  not  seem 
to  thrive  so  well  as  when  in  the  shade  of  the  partly 
cleared  forest,  as  was  the  plan  on  the  Tocantins.  "  When 
an  Indian  can  get  a  few  thousand  cacao-trees  planted,  he 
passes  an  idle,  quiet,  contented  life ;  all  he  has  to  do  is  to 
weed  under  them  two  or  three  times  a  year  and  to  gather 
and  dry  the  seeds." 

In  a  little  excursion  into  the  country  back  of  the  last- 
named  village  he  found  the  surface  an  undulating,  sandy 
plain,  in  some  places  thickly  covered  with  bushes,  and  in 
others  with  large,  scattered  trees.  At  a  distance  of  ten  or 
twelve  miles  were  several  fine,  rocky  mountains.  He 
visited  and  ascended  one  of  these,  and  on  the  other  side 
saw  a  wide,  undulating  plain,  covered  with  scattered  trees 
and  shrubs,  with  a  yellow,  sandy  soil  and  a  brownish  vege- 
tation. "  Beyond  this  was  seen  stretching  out  to  the  hori- 
zon a  succession  of  low,  conical,  and  oblong  hills,  stud- 
ding the  distant  plain  in  every  direction.  Kot  a  house 
was  to  be  seen,  and  the  picture  was  one  little  calculated  to 
impress  the  mind  with  a  favorable  idea  of  the  fertility  of 
the  country  or  the  beauty  of  tropical  scenery."  Eeturn- 
ing  to  Monte- Alegre  on  a  small  stream  filled  with  grass  and 
weeds,  he  saw  many  alligators.  "  Every  year  some  lives 
are  lost  by  incautiousness."  Eetuming  to  Santarem  to 
collect  insects,  he  speaks  of  the  "grateful and  refreshing" 
water-melons.  "  The  constant  hard  exercise,  pure  air,  and 
good  Hving  kept  us  in  the  most  perfect  health,  and  I  have 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  273 

never  altogether  enjoyed  myself  so  much."  He  observed 
that  the  tide  in  the  Amazon  rose  to  considerably  above 
Santarem,  but  that  it  never  flowed — merely  rose  and  fell. 

The  last  of  December,  1849,  he  arrived  at  Mandos,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Eio  IS^egro,  twelve  miles  above  its 
junction  with  the  Amazon,  a  city  then  containing  about 
five  thousand  inhabitants,  mostly  of  mixed  blood.  Mandos 
is  situated  thirty  feet  above  high  water,  and  its  streets  are 
regularly  laid  out.  The  river  there  is  a  mile  wide.  Con- 
tinuing his  voyage  up  the  Amazon,  he  says  :  "  The  low- 
lands, called  '  Gapo,'  varying  in  width  from  one  to  ten  or 
twenty  miles  on  each  side  of  the  river  above  Santarem  to 
the  confines  of  Peru,  are  in  great  part  flooded  six  months 
of  the  year." 

On  the  31st  of  August,  1850,  Mr.  Wallace  started 
from  Mandos  for  an  extensive  voyage  up  the  Rio  Ne- 
gro and  some  of  its  tributaries,  occupying  nearly  two 
years,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  several  of  the  wild 
tribes  of  Indians.  After  getting  a  few  miles  above  Ma- 
ndos, the  river  is  so  wide  for  several  hundred  miles  that 
both  banks  can  not  be  seen  at  once ;  they  are  probably 
from  ten  to  twenty-five  miles  apart,  and  some  of  the  isl- 
ands are  of  great  size.  He  found  all  the  villages  desolate 
and  half  deserted.  "  Called  at  the  house  of  a  man  who 
owed  Mr.  L some  money  and  who  paid  him  in  tur- 
tles, eight  or  nine  of  which  we  embarked.  .  .  .  Yery  fine 
weather,  but  every  afternoon,  or  at  least  four  or  five  times 
a  week,  we  had  a  storm,  with  violent  gusts  of  wind,  and 
often  thunder  and  rain.  .  .  .  After  September  30th,  gra- 
nitic rocks,  and  river  became  more  picturesque." 

After  making  some  hunting  excursions  in  the  thick 
forest,  accompanied  by  naked  Indians,  he  on  January  27, 
1851,  left  Guia,  continuing  the  voyage  up  the  Rio  Negro, 


274:     BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

and  on  February  1st  reached  the  Serra  Cocoi,  which  marks 
the  boundary  between  Brazil  and  Venezuela — granite  rock, 
precipitous,  and  nearly  a  thousand  feet  high.  "  During 
colonial  times,"  he  says,  "  the  Indians  learned  how  to  con- 
struct vessels  for  coast  and  inland  trade,  and  have  not 
forgotten  the  art.  By  eye  and  hand  alone  they  form  the 
framework  and  fit  on  the  planks  of  fine  little  vessels  of  a 
hundred  tons  or  more  with  no  other  tools  than  axe,  adze, 
and  hammer.  ...  A  great  part  of  the  population  of  the 
upper  Rio  Kegro  is  engaged  in  gathering  piassaba  broom- 
fiber  for  exportation.  Men,  women,  and  children  go  in 
large  parties  into  the  forest  to  obtain  it.  The  whole  stem 
of  a  curious  palm,  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high,  growing  in 
moist  places,  is  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  this  fiber, 
hanging  down  like  coarse  hair.  It  is  found  on  two  of  the 
southern  and  three  of  the  northern  tributaries.  .  .  .  In- 
dians will  take  two  loads  a  day,  ten  miles  each  way,  at  a 
sort  of  run — ^the  loads  suspended  from  a  pole  between 
them."  He  speaks  of  the  graceful  forms  of  Indians ;  is 
deserted  by  his  own  Indians. 

Mr.  Wallace  says  it  is  a  "  vulgar  error,  copied  and  re- 
peated from  one  book  to  another,  that  in  the  tropics  the 
luxuriance  of  the  vegetation  overpowers  the  eiforts  of 
man.  .  .  .  The  *  primeval'  forest  can  be  converted  into 
rich  pasture  and  meadow-land,  cultivated  field  and  garden, 
with  half  the  labor  and  in  less  than  half  the  time  required 
at  home.  ...  In  the  whole  Amazon  no  such  thing  as 
neatness  has  ever  been  tried."  He  recommends  the  Eio 
Negro  country  for  settlement  and  cultivation. 

On  FebiTiary  16,  1852,  he  starts  on  another  ascent  of 
the  Uaupes,  with  seven  of  the  Uaupe  Indians  with  him, 
some  of  whom  break  their  promise.  Speaking  of  the 
superstition  of  the  Indians,  he  says  women  are  killed  who 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  275 

even  accidentally  beliold  a  certain  musical  instrument.  At 
the  Uarucapuri  village  lie  sees  handsome  men  of  the  Co- 
beu  nation.  It  was  with  difficulty  he  succeeded  in  buying 
two  or  three  baskets  of  farinha.  On  March  12th  he 
reached  Mucura,  his  destination,  having  passed  fifty  rap- 
ids and  falls.  The  Indians  were  naked.  "  One  woman 
appeared  as  ashamed  with  a  petticoat  on  as  civilized  people 
would  be  if  they  took  theirs  off."  He  was  in  a  part  of 
the  country  never  before  visited  by  a  European ;  but  he 
was  disappointed  in  his  expectation  of  finding  rare  and 
handsome  birds,  and  starts  on  March  28th  on  his  return 
trip.  He  names  a  couple  of  white  men  who  with  a  suffi- 
cient force  had  engaged  in  the  amiable  business  of  attack- 
ing the  Carapanas  tribe  with  the  hope  of  getting  a  lot  of 
women,  boys,  and  children  to  take  ''as  presents"  to  Ma- 
ndos.  On  April  4th  he  records  that  they  "  arrived  with 
a  fleet  of  canoes  and  upward  of  twenty  prisoners,  all  but 
one  women  and  children.  Seven  men  and  one  woman 
had  been  kiUed ;  the  rest  of  the  men  escaped ;  but  only 
one  of  the  attacking  party  was  killed."  Of  course,  it  did 
not  often  happen  that  a  witness  like  Mr.  Wallace  was 
present  to  report  such  innocent  little  expeditions ! 

Parties  meeting  on  the  river,  having  lost  their  date, 
ask,  "What  day  is  it  with  you?"  Dwellers  along  the 
banks  of  the  river  ISTegro,  wishing  to  do  a  little  shopping 
a  few  hundred  miles  below,  frequently  ask  passers  to 
bring  them,  on  their  return,  what  they  require. 

Mr.  Wallace  reached  Mandos  on  May  ITth.  He  had 
obtained  in  the  Amazon  Yalley  five  hundred  species  of 
birds,  and  thought  a  thousand  might  be  got.  He  found 
two  hundred  and  five  species  of  fish  in  the  Eio  IS^egro, 
and  thought  there  were  many  more.  The  dry  season,  he 
states,  is  from  June  to  December,  and  the  wet  season 


276     BRAZn.:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

from  Januaiy  to  May.  On  the  upper  Amazon  he  once 
experienced  a  hail-storm.  On  getting  back  to  Pard  he 
found  that  it  had  much  improved.  He  declares  that  its 
climate  is  exceptional,  being  one  of  the  most  agreeable  in 
the  world.  But  there  were  some  drawbacks,  a  '^  univer- 
sal and  insecure  system  of  credit " ;  and  the  three  great 
vices  prevalent  were  "  drinking,  gambling,  and  lying." 

With  reference  to  the  province  of  Pard  he  says : 
"  There  is  perhaps  no  country  in  the  world  so  capable  of 
yielding  a  large  return  for  agricultural  labor,  and  yet  so 
little  cultivated ;  none  where  the  earth  will  produce  such 
a  variety  of  valuable  productions,  and  where  they  are  so 
totally  neglected ;  none  where  the  facilities  for  internal 
communication  are  so  great,  or  where  it  is  more  difficult 
or  tedious  to  get  from  place  to  place ;  none  which  so  much 
possesses  all  the  natural  requisites  for  an  immense  trade 
Vrith  all  the  world,  and  where  commerce  is  so  limited  and 
insignificant.  .  .  .  l!^ature  presents  but  a  monotonous 
scene.  In  the  interior  of  the  country  there  is  not  a  road 
or  path  out  of  the  towns  along  which  a  person  can  walk 
with  comfort  or  pleasure ;  all  is  dense  forest,  or  more  im- 
passable clearings.  Here  are  no  flower-bespangled  mead- 
ows, no  turfy  glades,  or  smooth  shady  walks  to  tempt  the 
lover  of  Nature ;  here  are  no  dry,  graveled  roads,  no 
field-side  paths,  ...  no  long  summer  evenings  to  wander 
in  at  leisure;  nor  long  winter  nights  with  the  blazing 
hearth."  He  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  large  extent 
of  flat  land  in  the  Amazon  Yalley  would  continue  to  be 
flooded  till  raised  by  renewed  earthquakes. 

•  Fourteen  years  pass,  and  a  new  actor  appears  on  the 
scene.  Prof.  Agassiz  made  his  indefatigable  and  most 
valuable  scientific  journey  on  the  Amazon  just  after  the 
close  of  the  American  civil  war.    He  spent  from  August, 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  277 

1865,  to  March,  18G6 — a  period  of  fully  six  months — in 
most  active  research  in  the  Amazon  Yallej,  assisted  by 
Mrs.  Agassiz  and  by  several  talented  young  Americans  of 
scientific  education.  One  part  of  the  result  of  this  tour 
was  a  fine  volume,  entitled  "  A  Journey  in  Brazil,"  by 
Prof,  and  Mrs.  Agassiz.  These  enlightened  travelers  had, 
of  course,  good  opportunities  to  see  both  ISTature  and  soci- 
ety, and  I  shall  venture  to  make  some  extracts  from  their 
narrative.  The  Brazilian  Company  of  Amazon  Eiver 
Steamers  generously  placed  at  the  disposition  of  Prof. 
Agassiz  and  party,  for  a  month,  the  use  of  one  of  their 
best  steamers  for  the  trip  from  Pard  to  Manaos,  which  is 
usually  made  in  five  days.  On  August  20th,  the  first  day 
of  the  trip,  Mrs.  Agassiz  thus  describes  the  accommoda- 
tions : 

"  Thus  far  the  hardships  of  this  South  American  jour- 
ney seem  to  retreat  at  our  approach.  It  is  impossible  to 
travel  with  greater  comfort  than  surrounds  us  here.  My 
own  suite  of  rooms  consists  of  a  good-sized  state-room, 
with  dressing-room  and  bath-room  adjoining ;  and,  if  the 
others  are  not  quite  so  luxuriously  accommodated,  they 
have  space  enough.  The  state-rooms  are  hardly  used  at 
night,  for  a  hammock  on  deck  is  far  more  comfortable  in 
this  climate.  Our  deck,  roofed  in  for  its  whole  length, 
and  with  an  awning  to  let  down  on  the  sides,  if  needed, 
looks  like  a  comfortable,  unceremonious  sitting-room.  A 
table  down  the  middle  serving:  as  a  dinner-table,  but  which 
is  at  this  moment  strewed  with  maps,  journals,  books,  and 
papers  of  all  sorts ;  two  or  three  lounging-chairs,  a  num- 
ber of  camp-stools,  and  half  a  dozen  hammocks,  in  one  or 
two  of  which  some  of  the  party  are  taking  their  ease — 
furnish  our  drawing-room,  and  supply  all  that  is  needed 
for  work  and  rest." 

24 


278      BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

From  Manaos  they  continued  the  trip  up  the  An>azon 
on  another  steamer,  which  was  furnished  by  the  Brazilian 
Government.  Of  course,  their  accommodations  were  bet- 
ter than  ordinary  travelers  would  receive.  On  September 
12th  Mrs.  Agassiz  writes :  "  Il^othing  can  be  more  com- 
fortable than  the  travelmg  on  these  Amazonian  boats. 
They  are  clean  and  well  kept,  with  good-sized  state-rooms, 
which  most  persons  use,  however,  only  as  dressing-rooms, 
since  it  is  always  more  agreeable  to  sleep  on  the  open 
deck  in  one's  hammock.  The  table  is  very  well  kept,  the 
fare  good,  though  not  varied.  Bread  is  the  greatest  defi- 
ciency, but  hard  biscuit  makes  a  tolerable  substitute.  Our 
life  is  after  this  fashion :  We  turn  out  of  our  hammocks 
at  dawn,  go  down-stairs  to  make  our  toilets,  and  have  a 
cup  of  hot  coffee  below.  By  this  thue  the  decks  are  gen- 
erally washed  and  dried,  the  hammocks  removed,  and  we 
can  go  above  again.  Between  then  and  the  breakfast- 
hour,  at  half -past  ten  o'clock,  I  generally  study  Portu- 
guese, though  my  lessons  are  somewhat  interrupted  by 
watching  the  shore  and  the  trees — a  constant  temptation 
when  we  ai'e  coasting  along  near  the  banks.  At  half -past 
ten  or  eleven  o'clock  breakfast  is  served,  and  after  that 
the  glare  of  the  sun  becomes  trying,  and  I  usually  descend 
to  the  cabin,  where  we  make  up  our  journals  and  write 
during  the  middle  of  the  day.  ...  At  three  o'clock  I 
consider  that  the  working-hours  are  over,  and  then  I  take 
a  book  and  sit  in  my  lounging-chair  on  deck,  and  watch 
the  scenery,  and  the  birds  and  the  turtles,  and  the  alliga- 
tors if  there  are  any,  and  am  lazy  in  a  general  way.  At 
five  o'clock  dinner  is  served  (the  meals  being  always  on 
deck),  and  after  that  begins  the  delight  of  the  day.  At 
that  hour  it  grows  deliciously  cool,  the  sunsets  are  always 
beautiful,  and  we  go  to  the  forward  deck  and  sit  there  till 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  279 

nine  o'clock  in  the  evening.  Then  comes  tea,  and  then 
to  our  hammocks ;  I  sleep  in  mine  most  profoundly  till 
morning." 

"  September  17th. — These  upper  stations  on  the  Ama- 
zons are  haunted  by  swarms  of  mosquitoes  at  night,  and 
dm-ing  the  day  by  a  little  biting  fly  called  jpiurriy  no  less 
annoying. 

"  September  ISth  (the  day  before  reaching  Tabatinga). 
— The  scenery  is  by  no  means  so  interesting  as  that  of  the 
lower  Amazons.  The  banks  are  ragged  and  broken,  the 
forest  lower,  less  luxuriant,  and  the  palm-growths  very 
fitful.  .  .  .  The  steamer  is  often  now  between  the  shores 
of  the  river  itself  instead  of  coasting  along  by  the  many 
lovely  islands  which  make  the  voyage  between  Para  and 
Manaos  so  diversified.  .  .  .  Then  the  element  of  human 
life  and  habitations  is  utterly  wanting ;  one  often  travels 
for  a  day  without  meeting  even  so  mnch  as  a  hut.  But, 
if  men  are  not  to  be  seen,  animals  are  certainly  plenty ; 
as  our  steamer  puffs  along,  great  flocks  of  birds  rise  up 
from  the  shore,  turtles  pop  their  black  noses  out  of  the 
water,  alligators  show  themselves  occasionally,  and  some- 
times a  troop  of  brown  capivari  scnttles  np  the  bank, 
taking  refuge  in  the  trees  at  our  approach." 

With  reference  to  the  state  of  society.  Prof.  Agassiz 
says :  "  Two  things  are  strongly  impressed  on  the  mind  of 
the  traveler  in  the  upper  Amazons :  the  necessity,  in  the 
first  place,  of  a  larger  population ;  and,  secondly,  of  a  bet- 
ter class  of  whites,  before  any  fair  beginning  can  be  made 
in  developing  the  resources  of  the  country.  .  .  .  Kot 
only  is  the  white  population  too  small  for  the  task  before 
it,  but  it  is  no  less  poor  in  quality  than  meager  in  num- 
bers. It  presents  the  singular  spectacle  of  a  higher  race 
receiving  the  impress  of  a  lower  one,  of  an  educated  class 


280     BRAZIL:   ITS   CONDITION  AND  PEOSPEOTS. 

adopting  the  habits  and  sinking  to  the  level  of  the  savage. 
In  the  towns  of  the  upper  Amazons  the  people  who  pass 
for  the  white  gentry  of  the  land,  while  they  profit  by  the 
ignorance  of  the  Indian  to  cheat  and  abuse  him,  neverthe- 
less adopt  his  social  habits,  sit  on  the  ground,  and  eat  with 
their  fingers  as  he  does.  .  .  .  The  white  man  engages  an 
Indian  to  work  for  him  at  a  certain  rate,  at  the  same  time 
promising  to  provide  him  with  clothes  and  food  until  such 
time  as  he  shall  have  earned  enough  to  take  care  of  him- 
self. This  outfit,  in  fact,  costs  the  employer  Httle ;  but, 
when  the  Indian  comes  to  receive  his  wages,  he  is  told 
that  he  is  already  in  debt  to  his  master  for  what  has  been 
advanced  to  him :  instead  of  having  a  right  to  demand 
money,  he  owes  work.  The  Indians  allow  themselves  to 
be  deceived  in  this  way  to  an  extraordinary  extent,  and 
remain  bound  to  the  service  of  a  man  for  a  lifetime,  be- 
lieving themselves  under  the  burden  of  a  debt,  while  they 
are  in  fact  creditors."  He  thinks  that  neither  Americans 
nor  Englishmen  would  degrade  themselves  to  the  social 
level  of  the  Indians  as  the  Portuguese  do. 

The  following  is  very  true  to-day:  "The  Brazilians 
are  very  happy  in  their  after-dinner  speeches,  expressing 
themselves  with  great  facility,  either  from  a  natural  gift, 
or  because  speech-making  is  an  art  in  which  they  have  had 
much  practice.  The  habit  of  drinking  healtlis  and  giving 
toasts  is  very  general  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
most  informal  dinner  among  intimate  friends  does  not 
conclude  without  some  mutual  greetings  of  this  kind." 

At  Mandos  Prof,  and  Mrs.  Agassiz  also  attended  a 
ball  given  at  the  residence  of  the  president  of  the  prov- 
ince, and,  there  being  no  carriages  in  the  place,  different 
parties  of  invited  guests  were  to  be  seen  groping  through 
the  streets  at  the  appointed  time,  lighted  with  lanterns. 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  281 

"  The  dresses,"  says  Mrs.  Agassiz,  "  were  of  every  variety, 
from  silks  and  satins  to  stuff-gowns,  and  tlie  complexions 
of  all  tints,  from  the  genuine  negro  through  paler  shades 
of  Indian  and  negro  to  white.  There  is  absolutely  no  dis- 
tinction of  color  here ;  a  black  lady  (always  supposing  her 
to  be  free)  is  treated  with  as  much  consideration  and 
meets  with  as  much  attention  as  a  white  one.  It  is,  how- 
ever, rare  to  see  a  person  in  society  who  can  be  called  a 
genuine  negro ;  but  there  are  many  mulattoes  and  mame- 
lucos — that  is,  persons  having  black  or  Indian  blood. 
There  is  little  ease  in  Brazilian  society,  even  in  the  larger 
cities ;  still  less  in  the  smaller  ones,  where  to  guard  against 
mistakes  the  conventionalities  of  town-life  are  exagger- 
ated. The  Brazilians,  indeed,  though  so  kind  and  hospi- 
table, are  formal,  fond  of  etiquette  and  social  solemnities. 
On  their  arrival,  all  the  senhoras  (married  ladies)  were 
placed  in  stiff  rows  around  the  walls  of  the  dancing-room. 
Occasionally  an  unfortunate  cavalier  would  stray  in  and 
address  a  few  words  to  this  formal  array  of  feminine 
charms;  but  it  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  evening, 
when  dancing  had  broken  up  the  company  into  groups, 
that  the  scene  became  really  gay.  At  intervals  trays 
of  doces  (confectionery  and  cake)  and  tea  were  handed 
round,  and  at  twelve  there  was  a  more  solid  repast,  at 
which  all  the  ladies  were  seated,  their  partners  standing 
behind  their  chairs  and  waiting  upon  them.  Then  began 
the  toasts  and  healths,  which  were  given  and  received 
with  great  enthusiasm." 

Again,  Mrs.  Agassiz  writes :  "  Whenever  we  have  been 
present  at  public  festivities  in  Brazil — and  our  observa- 
tion is  confirmed  by  other  foreigners  —  we  have  been 
struck  with  the  want  of  gayety,  the  absence  of  merriment. 
There  is  a  kind  of  lack-luster  character  in  their  fetes,  so 


282     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

far  as  any  demonstration  of  enjoyment  is  concerned.  Per- 
haps it  is  owing  to  their  enervating  climate,  but  the  Bra- 
ziHans  do  not  seem  to  work  or  play  with  a  will.  They 
have  not  the  activity  which,  while  it  makes  life  a  restless 
fever  with  our  people,  gives  it  interest  also ;  neither  have 
they  the  love  of  amusement  of  the  Continental  Euro- 
peans." At  the  time  of  their  visit  Brazil  was  engaged  in 
the-  long  and  costly  war  with  Paraguay,  which  possibly 
might  have  been  one  cause  of  the  sober  manners  of  the 
people. 

There  was  not  at  that  time,  and  probably  there  is  not 
now,  a  decent  hotel  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the 
Amazon,  and  any  one  who  thinks  of  stopping  at  the  towns 
had  better  provide  himseK  with  such  letters  as  will  secure 
accommodation  in  private  houses.  "  One  is  quite  inde- 
pendent in  the  matter  of  bedding ;  nobody  travels  without 
his  own  hammock,  and  the  net,  which  in  many  places  is  a 
necessity  on  account  of  the  mosquitoes.  Beds  and  bed- 
ding are  almost  unknown,  and  there  are  none  so  poor  as 
not  to  possess  two  or  three  of  the  strong  and  neat  twine 
hammocks  made  by  the  Indians  themselves  from  the  fibers 
of  the  palm."  The  refreshment  of  a  hammock  is  the  first 
act  of  hospitality  in  the  upper  Amazon  offered  one  arriv- 
ing from  any  distance.  "  One  does  not  see  much  of  the 
world  between  one  o'clock  and  four  in  this  climate.  These 
arc  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day,  and  there  are  few  who 
can  resist  the  temptation  of  the  cool,  swinging  hammock, 
slung  in  some  shady  spot  within  doors  or  without.  .  .  . 
Smoking  is  almost  universal  among  the  common  women 
here,  yet  it  is  not  confined  to  the  lower  classes.  Many  a 
senhora  (at  least  in  this  part  of  Brazil,  for  we  must  dis- 
tinguish between  the  civilization  on  the  banks  of  the 
Amazon  and  in  the  interior  and  that  in  the  cities  along 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  283 

the  coast)  enjoys  her  pipe,  while  she  lounges  in  her  ham- 
mock through  the  heat  of  the  day." 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  this  valley  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  subsistence.  "  In  the  midst  of 
a  country  which  should  be  overflowing  with  agricultural 
products,"  Mrs.  Agassiz  states,  "  neither  milk,  nor  butter, 
nor  cheese,  nor  vegetables,  are  to  be  had.  You  constantly 
hear  people  complaining  of  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
even  the  commonest  articles  of  domestic  consumption, 
when,  in  fact,  they  ought  to  be  produced  by  every  land- 
owner." In  the  upper  Amazon  "a  well-stocked  turtle- 
tank  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  yard,  as  the  people 
depend  largely  upon  turtles  for  their  food." 

Mrs.  Agassiz  gives  some  uncommonly  hne  sketches  of  • 
aboriginal  life,  though  the  Indians,  on  account  of  the  forced 
recruiting  that  was  going  on,  were  not  seen  at  their  best. 
The  Indian  women  said  "  the  forest  was  very  sad  "  then, 
because  all  their  men  had  been  taken  as  recruits,  or  were 
seeking  safety  in  the  woods.  As  a  general  thing,  the 
houses  of  the  Indians  were  found  more  tidy  than  those  of 
the  whites.  "  However  untidy  they  may  be  in  other  re- 
spects, they  always  bathe  once  or  twice  a  day,  if  not  oft- 
ener,  and  wash  their  clothes  frequently.  We  have  never 
yet  entered  an  Indian  house  where  there  was  any  disagree- 
able odor,  unless  it  might  be  the  peculiar  smell  from  the 
preparation  of  the  mandioca  in  the  working-room  outside, 
which  has,  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  process,  a  slightly  sour 
smell.  .  .  .  Although  the  Indians  are  said  to  be  a  lazy 
people,  and  are  unquestionably  fitful  and  irregular  in  their 
habits  of  work,  in  almost  all  these  houses  some  character- 
istic occupation  was  going  on.  In  two  or  three  the  women 
were  making  hammocks." 

While  even  the  partly  civilized  Indians  of  the  Amazon 


284     BKAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PKOSPEOTS. 

Yalley  would  seem  to  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  as  gatherers  of  rubber  in  the  forest 
wilds  they  supply  a  large  part  of  one  of  Brazil's  leading 
commercial  products. 

In  October  Prof.  Agassiz  and  party  were  taken  by  the 
president  of  the  province,  and  some  other  Brazilian  gen- 
tlemen, on  an  excursion  to  a  lake  some  hours  distant  by 
row-boat  from  Manaos,  on  whose  shore  they  spent  a  couple 
of  days  at  the  house  of  one  of  the  Indian  gentry.  It  was 
the  first  visit  of  the  new  president  of  the  province  to  the 
Indian  village  of  which  this  house  formed  a  part.  Mrs. 
Agassiz  thus  describes  the  place :  "  This  pretty  Indian  vil- 
lage is  hardly  recognized  as  a  village  at  once,  for  it  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  sitios  scattered  through  the  forest ; 
and,  though  the  inhabitants  look  on  each  other  as  friends 
and  neighbors,  yet  from  our  landing-place  only  one  sitio 
is  to  be  seen — that  at  which  we  are  staying.  It  stands  on 
a  hill  sloping  gently  up  from  the  lake-shore,  and  consists 
of  a  mud  house,  containing  two  rooms,  besides  several 
large,  open  palm-thatched  rooms  outside.  One  of  these 
outer  sheds  is  the  mandioca-ldtchen,  another  is  the  com- 
mon kitchen,  and  a  third,  which  is  just  now  used  as  our 
dining-room,  serves  on  festal  days  and  occasional  Sundays 
as  a  chapel.  It  differs  from  the  other  in  having  the  upper 
end  closed  in  with  a  neat  thatched  waU,  against  which,  in 
time  of  need,  the  altar-table  may  stand,  with  candles  and 
rough  prints  or  figures  of  the  Yirgin  and  saints.  We 
were  very  hospitably  received  by  the  senhora  of  the  mud 
house,  an  old  Indian  woman,  whose  gold  ornaments,  neck- 
lace, and  ear-rings  were  rather  out  of  keeping  with  her 
calico  skirt  and  cotton  waist.  Besides  the  old  lady,  the 
family  consists,  at  this  moment,  of  her  god-daughter,  with 
her  little  boy,  and  several  other  women  employed  about 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  285 

the  place.  .  .  .  The  situation  of  this  sitio  is  exceedingly 
pretty,  and  as  we  sit  around  the  table  in  our  open,  airy 
dining-room,  surrounded  by  the  forest,  we  command  a 
view  of  the  lake  and  wooded  hill-side  opposite  and  of  the 
little  landing  below,  where  are  moored  our  barge,  with  its 
white  awning,  the  gay  canoe,  and  two  or  three  Indian 
montarias.  After  breakfast  our  party  dispersed,  some  to 
rest  in  their  hammocks,  others  to  hunt  or  fish,  while  Mr. 
Agassiz  was  fully  engaged  in  examining  a  large  basket  of 
fish  just  brought  up  from  the  lake  for  his  inspection.  .  .  . 
Dinner  brought  us  all  together  again  at  the  close  of  the 
afternoon.  As  we  are  with  the  president  of  the  province, 
our  picnic  is  of  a  much  more  magnificent  character  than 
our  purely  scientific  excursions  have  been.  Instead  of  our 
usual  make-shifts — tea-cuj)s  doing  duty  as  tumblers,  and 
empty  barrels  acting  as  chairs — we  have  a  silver  soup- 
tureen,  and  a  cook,  and  a  waiter,  and  knives  and  forks 
enough  to  go  round,  and  many  other  luxuries  which  such 
wayfarers  as  ourselves  learn  to  do  without.  While  we 
were  dining,  the  Indians  began  to  come  in  from  the 
surrounding  forest  to  pay  their  respects  to  the  president 
for  his  visit  was  the  cause  of  great  rejoicing,  and  there 
was  to  be  a  ball  in  his  honor  in  the  evening.  They 
brought  an  enormous  cluster  of  game  as  an  oSering. 
What  a  mass  of  color  it  was  ! — more  like  a  gorgeous  bou- 
quet of  fiowers  than  a  bunch  of  birds.  It  was  composed 
entirely  of  toucans,  with  their  red  and  yellow  beaks,  blue 
eyes,  and  soft  white  breasts  bordered  with  crimson ;  and 
of  parrots,  with  their  gorgeous  plumage  of  green,  blue, 
purple,  and  red.  When  we  had  dined  we  took  coifee  out- 
side, while  our  places  around  the  table  were  filled  by  the 
Indian  guests,  who  were  to  have  a  dinner-party  in  their 
turn.     It  was  pleasant  to  see  with  how  much  courtesy 


286     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

several  of  the  Brazilian  gentlemen  of  our  party  waited 
upon  these  Indian  senhoras,  passing  them  a  variety  of 
dishes,  helping  them  to  wine,  and  treating  them  with  as 
much  attention  as  if  they  had  been  the  highest  ladies  of 
the  land.  They  seemed,  however,  rather  shy  and  embar- 
rassed, scarcely  touching  the  nice  things  placed  before 
them,  till  one  of  the  gentlemen,  who  has  lived  a  good  deal 
among  the  Indians  and  knows  their  habits  perfectly,  took 
the  knife  and  fork  from  one  of  them,  exclaiming :  *  Make 
no  ceremony,  and  don't  be  ashamed ;  eat  with  your  fingers 
as  you're  accustomed  to  do,  and  then  you'll  find  your  ap- 
petites and  enjoy  your  dinner.'  His  advice  was  followed, 
and  I  must  say  they  seemed  much  more  comfortable  in 
consequence,  and  did  more  justice  to  the  good  fare." 

Indian  society  presents  one  peculiar  feature.  Many  a 
family  gets  along  without  the  presence  of  men-folks ;  and, 
if  the  husband  and  father  is  Hkely  to  be  worthless,  his  ab- 
sence is  a  source  of  happiness.  The  home  of  an  Indian 
family  of  gentle  condition,  and  living  in  comfort  in  the 
village  just  mentioned,  was  visited,  and  when  the  grown 
daughter  was  asked  as  to  the  whereabout  of  her  father, 
the  mother  answered,  smihng :  "  She  hasn't  any  father ; 
she  is  the  daughter  of  chance " ;  and  when  the  daughter 
was  asked  if  the  father  of  her  two  httle  children  was  away 
in  the  war,  she  rephed,  "  They  haven't  any  father."  The 
partly  civilized  Indian  women  seem  to  lead,  on  the  whole, 
a  happy  life.  "  The  hf e  of  the  Indian  women,"  says  Mrs. 
Agassiz,  "  so  far  as  we  have  seen  it,  seems  enviable,  in 
comparison  with  that  of  the  Brazilian  lady  in  the  Ama- 
zonian towns.  The  former  has  a  healthful  out-door  life ; 
she  has  her  canoe  on  the  lake  or  river,  and  her  paths 
through  the  forest,  with  perfect  liberty  to  come  and  go ; 
she  has  her  appointed  daily  occupations,  being  busy  not 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  287 

only  with  the  care  of  her  house  and  children,  but  in  mak- 
ing farinha  or  tapioca,  or  in  drying  and  rolling  tobacco, 
while  the  men  are  fishing  and  turtle-hunting ;  and  she  has 
her  frequent  festa-days  to  enliven  her  working-life.  It  is, 
on  the  contrary,  impossible  to  imagine  anything  more 
dreary  and  monotonous  than  the  life  of  the  Brazilian  sen- 
hora  in  the  smaller  towns.  In  the  northern  provinces  espe- 
cially, the  old  Portuguese  notions  about  shutting  women 
up  and  making  their  home-life  as  colorless  as  that  of  a 
cloistered  nun,  without  even  the  element  of  religious  en- 
thusiasm to  give  it  zest,  stiU  prevail.  Many  a  Brazilian 
lady  passes  day  after  day  without  stirring  beyond  her  four 
walls,  scarcely  ever  showing  herself  at  the  door  or  win- 
dow ;  for  she  is  always  in  a  slovenly  deshabille^  unless  she 
expects  company.  It  is  sad  to  see  these  stilled  exist- 
ences ;  without  any  contact  with  the  world  outside,  without 
any  charm  of  domestic  life,  without  books  or  culture  of 
any  kind,  the  Brazilian  senhora  in  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try either  sinks  contentedly  into  a  vapid,  empty,  aimless 
life,  or  frets  against  her  chains,  and  is  as  discontented  as 
she  is  useless." 

With  reference  to  the  mixture  of  races.  Prof.  Agassiz 
records  the  following  opinion :  "  Let  any  one  who  doubts 
the  evil  of  this  mixture  of  races,  and  is  inclined,  from  a 
mistaken  philanthropy,  to  break  down  all  barriers  between 
them,  come  to  Brazil.  He  can  not  deny  the  deterioration 
consequent  upon  an  amalgamation  of  races,  more  wide- 
spread here  than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world,  and 
which  is  rapidly  effacing  the  best  qualities  of  the  white 
man,  the  negro,  and  the  Indian,  leaving  a  mongrel  nonde- 
script type,  deficient  in  physical  and  mental  energy.'' 

During  this  exploration  Prof.  Agassiz  collected  from 
the  waters  of  the  Amazon  Yalley  nearly  two  thousand 


288    BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

different  species  of  fish,  a  result  tlie  significance  of  which 
will  be  recognized  when  one  is  told  that  in  all  the  rivers 
of  Europe  there  are  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  spe- 
cies of  fresh-water  fish.  The  artist  of  the  expedition,  Mr. 
Burkhardt,  painted  more  than  eight  hundred  sketches  of 
different  fishes  from  life — that  is,  from  the  fish  swimming 
in  a  large  glass  tank  before  him. 

!N"ear  the  close  of  his  work.  Prof.  Agassiz,  in  a  letter  to 
the  Emperor,  bore  generous  testimony  to  the  co-operation 
the  Brazilians  had  given  to  his  labors :  "  Erom  the  presi- 
dent to  the  most  humble  employes  of  the  provinces  I  have 
visited,  all  have  competed  with  each  other  to  render  my 
work  more  easy." 

I  shall  finish  this  chapter  with  some  testimony  on  the 
situation  of  American  settlers  in  the  Amazon  Valley,  by 
Dr.  Herbert  H.  Smith,  author  of  the  valuable  work,  "  Brar 
zil,  the  Amazons,  and  the  Coast."  His  visit  there  was  ten 
years  after  that  of  Prof.  Agassiz,  namely,  in  1875.     At 

Santarem  he  met  with   Mr.  P ,  one  of  some  fifty 

Americans  who  had  come  from  the  Southern  States  in 
1866,  and  who  were  engaged  in  farming  about  six  miles 
distant.  Originally  the  colony  had  been  much  larger,  for 
"  with  a  few  good  families  there  came  a  rabble  of  lazy 
vagabonds  who  looked  upon  the  affair  as  a  grand  ad- 
venture. Arrived  at  Santarem,  they  were  received  kindly 
enough,  but  after  a  little  the  good  people  became  disgusted 
with  their  guests,  who  quarreled  incessantly,  and  filled 
the  town  with  their  drunken  uproar.  Government  aid  for 
the  colony  was  withdrawn  ;  gradually  the  scum  floated 
away,  leaving  the  memory  of  their  worthlessness  to  injure 
the  others.  The  few  families  that  remained  had  to  out- 
live public  opinion,  and  a  hard  time  they  had  of  it,  with 
poverty  on  one  side  and  ill-will  on  the  other.     But  in 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY. 

time  the  Brazilians  discovered  that  these  were  not  vaga- 
bonds ;  they  learned  to  respect  their  industry  and  perse- 
verance, and  now  all  through  the  Amazon  you  will  hear 
nothing  but  good  words  of  the  Santarem  colony."     Dr. 

Smith  accepted  an  urgent  invitation  from  Farmer  P , 

a  tall  Tennessean,  to  go  out  to  the  settlement  for  a  few 
days,  where  he  met  with  a  cordial  welcome.  The  fai-m- 
er's  home  was  situated  a  few  miles  distant,  in  a  large  clear- 
ing in  the  forest,  at  the  base  of  a  plateau  that  is  some 
hundred  feet  above  the  river.  All  around  there  were 
splendid  masses  of  green  cacao-trees,  and  lime-trees,  and 
great  pale  banana-plants,  and  coffee-bushes  straying  up 
into  the  woods ;  and  beyond  those  a  bit  of  untouched  for- 
est, with  a  giant  Brazil-nut  tree  towering  over  it.     He 

says  :  "  With  all  the  beauty  of  the  site,  P evidently 

has  a  hard  time  of  it ;  he  looks  care-worn,  and  a  little  dis- 
couraged. The  land  is  excellent,  but  the  stream  is  too 
small  to  give  him  a  good  water-power,  and  without  that 
he  can  not  manage  a  large  cane-plantation.  He  complains 
of  the  low  prices  that  he  receives  for  his  produce ;  the 
Santarem  traders  take  advantage  of  his  helplessness,  and 
he  is  often  obliged  to  sell  below  the  market  value.  All 
the  Americans  are  cultivating  sugar-cane ;  the  juice  is 
distilled  into  rum,  which  is  sold  at  Santarem.  Probably 
coffee  or  cacao  might  pay  better,  but  our  colonists  came 
here  without  money,  and  they  could  not  wait  for  slow- 
growing  crops.     Mr.  P tells  how  he  and  his  family 

were  housed,  with  the  others,  in  a  great  thatched  build- 
ing; how  the  colonists  were  supported  for  a  while  on 
Government  rations,  until  they  could  locate  their  planta- 
tions and  get  in  their  first  crops ;  how  they  had  to  strug- 
gle with  utter  poverty,  work  without  tools,  live  as  best 
they  could  until  their  fields  were  established.     P 


290     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

saved  a  little  money,  and  bonglit  this  ground  of  an  old 
Indian  woman ;  it  was  only  a  small  clearing,  with  a  dozen 
fruit-trees.     The  family  lived  in  a  rough  shed  until  they 

could  build  a  thatched  house,  and  P himself  had  to 

bring  provisions  from  Santarem  on  his  back.  It  was  a 
long  time  before  he  could  cut  a  road,  and  longer  before 
he  had  horses  for  his  work.  .  .  .  He  had  to  grind  his  cane 
with  a  rough  wooden  miU  until  he  could  procure  an  iron 
one  from  the  United  States ;  he  had  to  get  his  still  on 
credit,  and  pay  a  high  price  for  it ;  horses,  oxen,  carts, 
casks,  were  all  obtained  by  slow  degrees  and  at  a  great 
sacrifice.  He  has  been  his  own  carpenter,  mason,  ma- 
chinist— everything ;  it  was  a  long  time  before  he  could 
even  hire  an  Indian  to  work  for  him.  And  now,  after 
seven  years  of  hard  struggle,  he  finds  himself  with — what  ? 
A  plantation  that  he  "could  not  sell  for  one  fourth  of  its 
real  value,  simply  because  there  are  no  buyers ;  a  burden 
of  debts  that  it  will  take  him  a  long  time  to  pay ;  and 
himself  with  a  broken-down  body  and  discouraged  heart. 
" '  The  children  have  no  schooling,'  complains  Mrs. 

P ;  '  they  can't  even  go  to  a  Brazilian  master,  for  we 

are  too  far  from  town.'  She  talks  of  sending  them  to 
the  States,  but  I  fear  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  her 
husband  can  afford  that.  The  family  are  Protestants,  but 
they  never  hear  a  Protestant  service  now,  unless  rarely, 
when  a  missionary  or  traveling  minister  passes  this  way.  - 
Sometimes  they  visit  with  the  Americans,  but  the  planta- 
tions are  far  apart,  and  tlie  roads  are  rough,  and  it  is  not 
often  that  they  can  make  a  holiday,  unless  it  be  of  a  Sun- 
day. .  .  . 

"  After  a  while  we  find  our  way  to  other  American 
houses ;  the  nearest  of  these  are  at  Diamantina,  a  little 
settlement  two  or  three  miles  beyond  P 's  house.  . 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  291 

R 's  house  is  really  very  pretty ;  to  be  sure,  it  is  cov- 
ered entirely  with  palm-thatch,  but  the  wide  hall  through 
the  middle  looks  cool  and  inviting ;  there  are  orange-trees 
on  either  side,  and  a  flower-garden  in  front,  with  a  beauti- 
ful clear  stream,  where  R has  built  a  bathing-house 

over  the  water.  The  whole  looks  so  neat  and  tasteful  that 
we  half  beheve  in  Mr.  Wallace's  romantic  dream,  after  all. 

But  there  is  the  drunken  Indian  at  the  still,  and  R 's 

tired  face  taking  the  color  from  the  picture.    Mrs.  R 

speaks  sadly  of  her  Charleston  home,  and  the  intellectual 
society  which  she  has  left  there.  I  fear  that  this  family 
is  hardly  better  satisfied  than  are  the  others."     In  course 

of  time  Dr.  Smith  leaves  his  pleasant  quarters  at  P 's 

and  visits  other  American  families  at  Panema,  five  miles 
away,  where,  among  other  homes,  was  the  most  advanced 
establishment  of  the  colony,  and  which  he  thus  describes : 
"  The  proprietor  was  a  Methodist  clergyman  in  Mis- 
sissippi ;  like  many  of  his  class,  he  had  a  ready  capability 
for  aU  kinds  of  work ;  was,  in  fact,  the  very  best  man  that 
could  be  chosen  for  a  pioneer.  Moreover,  he  had  a  little 
money  to  start  with,  and  two  stout  boys  to  assist  him  in 
his  work ;  he  was  sensible  enough  to  choose  a  most  desir- 
able location,  where  the  land  was  rich,  and  there  was 
abundant  water-power.  With  these  advantages,  he  has 
advanced  steadily.  At  first  he  was  content  to  live  in  a 
log-house,  and  work  with  such  machinery  as  he  could  get 
in  the  country ;  when  his  plantation  was  well  advanced, 
and  he  thoroughly  understood  his  needs,  he  made  a  trip 
to  the  United  States  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
out  machinery  and  tools.  One  of  these  importations  was 
a  saw-mill ;  with  this  he  sawed  out  boards  and  beams  for 
a  good  frame  house,  and  a  great  deal  for  sale  besides ;  he 
has  built  mills  for  grinding  com,  thrashing  rice,  cutting 


292     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

cane-tops  for  his  cattle;  a  blacksmith  -  shop,  very  well 
equipped;  a  fine  cane-mill,  and  evaporators  for  sugar. 
He  has  reason  to  look  forward  with  hope  to  the  future. 

"  This  man  and  Mr.  E ,  at  Diamantina,  are  the 

only  ones  in  the  colony  who  have  achieved  anything  like 
success.  But  they  came  alone,  chose  their  ground  care- 
fully, and  worked  carefully  with  a  fixed  end  in  view ;  and, 
having  capital  in  the  outset,  they  were  independent  of  the 
traders,  and  could  get  a  good  price  for  their  produce.  .  .  • 
The  Americans  at  Diamantina  and  Panema  are  generally 
discontented  with  their  lot,  and  no  wonder ;  they  began 
work  without  capital,  or  with  very  little,  and  they  have 
been  sti-uggling  all  along  for  a  bare  existence.  Their  ex- 
ample shows  plainly  enough,  I  think,  that  the  Amazons 
is  not  a  good  pioneering  ground  for  a  jpoor  man." 

Dr.  Smith  afterward  speaks  of  the  experience  of  Mr. 
E.  J.  Ehome,  a  practical  American,  who  had  a  theory 
that  the  Amazonian  highlands  were  fitted  for  successful 
farming.  He  took  the  managing  partnership  of  a  Bra- 
zilian plantation,  twenty  miles  below  Santai'cm,  and  put 
his  theory  into  practice.  "  At  the  end  of  twelve  years  the 
estate  has  become  the  finest  on  the  Amazon,  and  Ameri- 
can enterprise  has  built  up  an  American  home." 

Dr.  Smith  shows  that  the  gatherers  of  Brazil-nuts  in 
the  Amazon  Yalley  suffer  a  great  deal  of  sickness  from 
their  exposure  and  poor  diet.  But  there  are  direct  perils 
also: 

"  Sometimes  the  gatherers  are  lost  in  the  woods ;  some- 
times canoes,  loaded  with  nuts,  are  overturned  in  the  rap- 
ids, and  the  boatmen  are  drowned.  But  the  grand  danger 
— the  one  most  dreaded — is  that  of  the  falling  nut-cap- 
sules. They  are  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  weigh  two 
or  three  pounds;  falling  a  hundred  feet  or  more,  they 


THE  AMAZON  VALLEY.  293 

come  crashing  through  the  branches  Kke  cannon-balls. 
The  gatherers  keep  to  their  huts  while  the  morning  wind 
is  blowing,  and  if  their  roof  is  at  all  exposed  it  is  inclined 
strongly,  so  that  the  fruits  will  glance  off  from  it.  While 
the  fruits  are  falling,  the  gatherers  occupy  themselves  at 
home,  cutting  open  the  hard  cases  with  their  heavy  knives, 
and  drying  the  nuts  in  the  sun.  When  the  wind  dies 
away,  men  and  women  sally  out  to  the  gathering,  bringing 
the  nuts  on  their  backs  in  great  baskets." 

It  is  true  the  trade  of  the  Amazon  Yalley  has  rapidly 
increased  within  the  past  few  years,  but  it  has  not  been 
such  a  development  as  makes  a  very  good  showing  for  the 
country,  since  the  principal  article  of  this  commerce — 
rubber — has  been  produced  at  the  cost  of  the  natural 
wealth  of  the  forest ;  being  much  on  the  same  principle 
in  which  lumber  is  produced  from  our  pine-forests  in  the 
United  States,  Avith  total  disregard  of  regrowth  and  the 
future.  For  the  proper  development  of  the  Amazon  Yal- 
ley there  are  needed  just  what  is  required  in  the  other 
large  unoccupied  areas  of  Brazil — people  and  capital. 


CHAPTEE  XYII. 

BEASTS   OF   PEEY. 

Of  all  the  beasts  of  prey  in  Brazil,  tlie  most  formida- 
ble and  the  most  common  is  the  jaguar,  or  South  American 
tiger,  called  in  Brazil  the  onga.  There  are  three  kinds — 
red,  spotted,  and  black,  the  last  two  kinds  being  the 
largest.  This  animal  does  not  stand  as  high  as  the  Asiatic 
tiger,  but  is  very  powerfully  built,  and  carries  off  cattle. 
The  length  of  a  large  specimen  is  from  six  to  seven  feet, 
but  an  ordinary  one  measures  about  four  feet  from  the 
nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  "  Its  manner  of  killing  its 
victim  is,  after  springing  upon  it,  to  strike  it  to  the  earth 
by  a  blow  of  its  powerful  paw."  It  seldom  attacks  human 
beings,  unless  interfered  with  or  wounded;  and  I  have 
seen  people  who  had  seen  an  onga  in  the  forest,  and  who 
said  they  were  not  afraid  of  meeting  one. 

The  spotted  onga  is  handsomely  marked,  and  the  skin 
of  one  sells  at  Kio  for  ten  dollars.  The  English  natural- 
ist Wallace,  while  out  alone  with  his  rifle  in  the  forest 
solitude  of  the  Amazon,  saw  a  black  on§a  cross  his  path  a 
little  way  ahead  of  him,  walking  leisurely  along.  The 
animal  stopped  a  few  moments  and  looked  at  him ;  and 
Mr.  "Wallace,  who  was  an  excellent  shot,  relates  that  he 
was  so  astonished  and  impressed  by  the  magnificence  of 
the  beast  that  he  never  thought  to  fire  at  him,  and,  while 
he  stood  fixed  in  admiration,  the  onga  disappeared. 


BEASTS  OF  PREY.  295 

The  few  anecdotes  I  have  heard  of  the  Brazilian  on^a 
are  not,  I  am  happy  to  say,  of  a  very  thrilling  character. 
Some  of  them  are  ludicrous  rather  than  dreadful.  A 
queer  experience  with  an  on§a  is  related  of  one  of  the 
American  settlers  on  the  forest  shore  of  the  big  lake  of 
Juparana,  in  the  province  of  Espirito  Santo.  The  man 
lived  alone,  two  miles  from  any  neighbor,  in  a  small  cabin, 
having  an  open  doorway,  but  no  door.  One  night  he  was 
awakened  from  sleep  by  what  he  thought  were  the  foot- 
steps of  some  person ;  and,  getting  up  and  going  to  his 
open  doorway  to  see  who  could  be  making  him  a  visit  at 
that  time  of  night,  lo  and  behold!  there  was  an  on^a 
standing  opposite  the  entrance  and  looking  toward  him. 
He  was  greatly  alaiToed,  for  he  had  no  weapon  of  defense, 
and  there  was  nothing  to  prevent  the  prowling  intruder 
attacking  him.  He  had  an  axe,  but  it  was  out  in  the  shed, 
and  he  did  not  dare  to  step  beyond  the  threshold.  The 
only  thing  he  could  think  of  for  safety  was  to  seize  a  tin 
pan,  which  happened  to  be  among  his  household  utensils, 
and  climb  aloft  on  one  of  the  timbers  of  his  cabin,  and 
scare  off  the  on^a  by  beating  the  pan.  He  kept  beating 
the  tin  pan  till  dayhght,  when  he  cautiously  descended 
and  looked  about.  The  on§a  had  disappeared,  and,  so  far 
as  is  known,  never  came  back. 

I  once  asked  an  English  civil  engineer  who  had  re- 
sided twenty-three  years  in  Brazil,  and  had  been  a  good 
deal  through  the  country  exploring  railway  routes,  if  he 
had  ever  come  across  an  on^a.  "ITo,"  said  he,  "never. 
The  on§a  is  a  humbug.  I  should  have  no  fear  of  one. 
It  is  no  bigger  than  a  calf,  and  I  consider  it  a  humbug. 
I  have  traveled  thousands  of  miles  in  Brazil,  and  never 
carried  and  never  needed  a  weapon." 

While  examining  with  Dr.  Herbert  Smith  his  large 


296     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

and  new  natural  history  collection  from  Matto-Grosso  at 
the  Irrational  Museum  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and,  among  other 
things,  the  skull  of  an  onga,  which  indicated  a  powerful 
animal,  he  told  me  that  the  onga  in  question,  before  being 
taken,  had  killed  two  dogs,  and  said  the  instinct  of  the 
beast  was  to  seize  his  victim  by  the  throat.  I  naturally 
inquu-ed  if  he  would  be  apt  to  attack  a  man  in  that  way, 
and  was  informed  that  the  onga,  in  fighting  a  human 
being,  would  first  try  to  deal  a  knock-down  blow  on  the 
head  with  his  paw.  He  mentioned  this  case,  which  came 
under  his  knowledge :  A  man  was  attacked  by  an  onga, 
and  had  only  a  knife  for  a  weapon.  He,  however,  wore 
a  pretty  thick  and  strong  leather  pouch  or  bag,  and  had 
the  presence  of  mind  to  put  his  hand  into  this,  and  with 
it,  thus  protected,  to  thrust  it  into  the  onga's  mouth. 
While  the  beast  was  trying  in  vain  to  bite  through  it,  the 
man  dispatched  him  with  his  knife,  but  got  some  bad 
scratches  on  his  breast. 

A  BraziHan,  living  about  sixty  miles  from  Rio,  was 
in  the  woods  with  his  gun  not  long  ago,  and  was  startled 
by  a  noise  and  growl  which  he  supposed  were  from  an  onga 
close  by  him.  He  was  frightened  almost  out  of  his  wits,  but 
braced  himself  against  a  tree,  and  brought  his  rifle  to  his 
shoulder  to  be  ready  to  fire.  In  a  moment  more  he  saw 
that  it  was  nothing  more  dangerous  than  half  a  dozen 
screeching  monkeys  in  a  furious  chase  up  a  tree,  as  badly 
frightened,  perhaps,  as  he. 

Prof.  Facchenetti,  a  landscape-painter  of  Rio,  once, 
when  up  in  the  Organ  Mountains  alone,  had  just  got  his 
brushes  out,  ready  to  begin  work,  when  his  attention  was 
arrested  by  the  noise  of  a  movement  near  him.  Looking 
that  way,  he  saw  passing,  as  if  on  the  scent  of  prey,  a 
large  and  beautifully  marked  on^a,  which  twice  turned 


BEASTS   OF  PREY.  297 

its  head  to  regard  him.  He  had  no  weapon,  but  simply 
looked  at  the  beast  with  an  opera-glass,  and  he  walked 
quietly  off. 

A  leading  botanist,  now  at  Eio,  while  on  a  scientific 
tour  in  the  interior  province  of  Minas-Geraes,  accom- 
panied by  a  servant  and  a  scientific  assistant,  camped  one 
night  in  a  sort  of  stone  cave,  having  only  a  small  opening. 
They  brushed  away  the  rubbish,  among  which  were  a  few 
bones,  and,  as  it  was  already  night,  the  botanist,  being 
tired,  had  lain  down  and  was  asleep.  The  assistant  was 
in  the  act  of  making  a  cigarette,  when  suddenly  he 
dropped  it,  threw  up  his  hands,  and  gave  a  terrible  cry 
of  alarm.  They  had  unconsciously  appropriated  to  them- 
selves the  den  of  this  most  dreadful  wild  beast,  and  he 
had  come  back,  his  eyes  glaring  fire,  to  his  accustomed 
lodging.  His  appearance  at  the  mouth  of  the  cave  caused 
the  shriek  which  awakened  the  botanist  and  actually  made 
the  servant's  hair  to  stand  on  end.  He  went  off,  however, 
yet  every  httle  while  through  the  night  they  saw  at  the 
mouth  of  the  cave  a  pair  of  eyes  looking  like  balls  of  fire. 
They  also  heard  his  disagreeable  growl  while  he  was  wan- 
dering about  outside.  They  sat  up  every  minute  of  the 
night,  and  kept  up  a  blazing  fire  to  frighten  him  away. 
Every  time  he  appeared  the  servant's  teeth  chattered  with 
fear. 

In  the  end  of  one  of  the  streets  of  the  village  of  Lin- 
hares,  on  the  river  Doce,  province  of  Espirito  Santo,  an 
onga  killed  a  horse  only  a  few  months  ago.  "Well,  when 
an  onga  gets  that  near,  he  must  be  killed,  or  he  will  de- 
stroy all  the  live-stock;  so  a  hunting-party  was  got  to- 
gether, and  went  out  and  succeeded  in  kilHng  the  beast, 
but  not  till  he  had  dispatched  a  score  or  so  of  venturesome 
dogs.     An  American  planter,  living  in  that  vicinity,  in- 


298     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PEOSPEOTS. 

forms  me  that  lie  lias  seen  several  live  ongas  in  the  woods, 
and  that  there  are  three  sorts  in  that  region — the  black,  the 
spotted,  and  the  red.  It  is  his  opinion  that  they  do  not 
attack  a  person  unless  they  have  been  first  interfered  with 
or  wounded.  They  seem  to  respect  people  who  mind 
their  own  business.  He  related  this  anecdote :  The  farm- 
ers often  have  their  poultry-yards  robbed  by  opossums. 
One  night  a  disturbance  was  heard  among  the  fowls,  and 
some  of  the  people  went  out  to  see  what  was  the  matter. 
From  all  the  sounds  and  appearances  they  were  convinced 
there  was  an  opossum  in  the  yard,  and  they  determined 
to  wait  there  till  daylight,  and  then  administer  summary 
justice  for  his  depredations.  At  length  dawn  arrived. 
They  opened  the  door  and  looked  in,  and,  behold !  there 
was  an  onga,  at  sight  of  which  they  gave  a  scream  and 
ran  off.  The  onga  escaped,  though  it  was  rather  a  small 
and  young  one. 

There  is  a  man  living  in  that  neighborhood  who  car- 
ries on  his  back  the  scars  left  by  the  paw  of  an  on§a.  In 
the  woods  he  had  shot  at  and  wounded  the  animal,  which 
w^ent  off.  He  followed  it,  thinking  it  would  be  dead; 
but  it  was  alive  and  very  mad,  and  tmmed  and  pursued 
the  hunter,  who  took  to  a  tree  as  fast  as  he  could.  The 
tree,  however,  was  small,  and  bent  down  somewhat  with 
his  weight,  so  that  the  onga  was  able  to  reach  him  with 
his  paw  and  deal  him  a  bad  scratch.  The  man,  however, 
had  a  big  hunting-knife  in  his  belt,  which  he  drew  and 
gave  the  infuriated  beast  his  quietus,  otherwise  the  issue 
might  have  been  fatal  to  himself. 

People  do  not  hunt  the  onga  for  amusement,  as  a  iiile. 
They  prefer  to  go  a-gunning  for  almost  any  other  sort 
of  game.  It  is  only  when  a  planter  or  farmer  has  lost 
sheep  after  sheep,  or  other  kinds  of  live-stock,  and  the 


BEASTS  OF  PREY.  299 

circumstances  point  about  conclusively  to  the  onga  as  the 
depredator,  that  he  assembles  his  neighbors  with  their 
guns  and  dogs,  and  they  all  sally  out  to  bring  the  dreaded 
beast  to  destruction. 

There  are  authentic  instances  of  his  attacking  and  kill- 
ing human  beings.  In  the  course  of  the  past  year  an 
onga  was  killed  at  the  very  door  of  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Grao  Para  Colony,  in  the  province  of  Santa 
Catharina. 

A  newspaper  in  the  south  part  of  the  province  of 
Minas-Geraes  recently  published  the  following :  "  Traces 
of  an  onga  having  been  noticed  on  a  farm  near  Santo  An- 
tonio do  Machado,  some  hunters  resolved  to  go  in  search 
of  it.  Meeting  with  her  in  the  woods,  one  of  the  hunters, 
from  fear  or  some  other  cause,  attempted  to  climb  a  tree, 
when  the  on§a  sprang  on  him,  catching  him  by  the  leg 
and  then  by  the  neck.  The  other  hunters  began  to  fire 
at  the  animal,  which  was  enormous,  and  at  last,  giving  it 
a  mortal  shot,  caused  it  to  spring  up  in  the  air,  carrying 
with  it  the  unhappy  victim,  falling  down  dead,  and  leav- 
ing the  unfortunate  man  in  a  horrible  state,  with  a  great 
part  of  the  scalp  torn  off,  but  still  with  life." 

With  regard  to  serpents,  the  two  larger  kinds — the 
anaconda  and  the  boa  constrictor — are  understood  to  exist 
only  in  the  Amazon  Yalley.  The  last-mentioned  is  not 
regarded  as  dangerous,  and  is  even  sometimes  domesti- 
cated for  the  purpose  of  keeping  away  vermin.  An  ac- 
quaintance informed  me  that  during  a  tour  in  the  back 
country  he  heard  at  night,  in  the  unfinished  ceiling  of  the 
room  in  which  he  lodged,  a  movement  of  things  at  differ- 
ent times,  and  when  he  awoke  in  the  morning  he  found 
the  noise  had  been  caused  by  a  domesticated  boa  con- 
strictor. 


300     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

Generally  in  Brazil  there  are  several  species  of  venom- 
ous serpents  besides  tlie  rattlesnake.  I  am  glad  to  say  that 
I  have  had  but  little  opportunity  to  extend  my  knowledge 
in  this  branch  of  natural  history.  From  my  little  observa- 
tion I  would  think  Brazil  is  no  more  troubled  with  the 
ordinary  sorts  of  venomous  snakes  than  most  other  new 
countries.  The  only  incident  under  this  head  that  has 
occurred  in  my  experience — and  perhaps  it  is  not  worth 
relating — was  during  our  residence  in  the  mountain  sub- 
urb of  Tijuca.  About  the  middle  of  a  warm  sunny  day  I 
heard  a  shriek  from  the  kitchen,  and,  on  going  to  see 
what  was  the  matter,  I  saw  that  a  snake,  about  a  yard 
long,  had  got  into  the  entry  through  the  open  outside 
kitchen  -  door,  and  was  about  advancing  with  his  head 
raised.  From  its  brown  and  bright  colors  I  instinctively 
felt  that  it  was  one  of  the  venomous  sort.  He  had  paused 
for  a  moment,  but  then  began  to  crawl  farther  along.  At 
this  I  seized  a  broom  and  killed  him  by  a  blow  or  two  with 
the  handle,  and  got  him  out  of  the  house  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble. An  old  resident  pronounced  him  one  of  the  venom- 
ous sort. 

Mr.  Bates,  in  his  valuable  narrative  of  explorations  in 
the  Amazon  Yalley,  "  The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazons," 
gives  some  interesting  anecdotes  of  the  hideous  anaconda. 
Describing  an  experience  while  on  the  Cupari  Eiver,  a 
branch  of  the  Tapajos,  he  writes :  "  We  had  an  unwel- 
come visitor  while  at  anchor  in  the  port  of  Joao  Mala- 
gueita.  I  was  awoke  a  little  after  midnight,  as  I  lay  in  my 
little  cabin,  by  a  heavy  blow  struck  at  the  sides  of  the  ca- 
noe close  to  my  head,  which  was  succeeded  by  the  sound 
of  a  weighty  body  plunging  in  the  water,  I  got  up ;  but 
all  was  again  quiet,  except  the  cackle  of  fowls  in  our  hen- 
coop, which  hung  over  the  side  of  the  vessel  about  three 


BEASTS  OF  PREY.  301 

feet  from  the  cabin-door.  I  could  find  no  explanation  of 
the  circumstance,  and,  my  men  being  all  ashore,  I  turned 
in  and  slept  till  morning.  I  then  found  my  poultry  loose 
about  the  canoe,  and  a  large  rent  in  the  bottom  of  the  hen- 
coop, which  was  about  two  feet  from  the  surface  of  the 
water ;  a  couple  of  fowls  were  missing.  Senhor  Antonio 
said  the  depredator  was  a  suciiruju  (the  Indian  name  for 
the  anaconda,  or  great  water-serpent — Eimectes  murmus), 
which  had  for  months  past  been  haunting  this  part  of  the 
river,  and  had  carried  off  many  ducks  and  fowls  from  the 
ports  of  various  houses.  I  was  inclined  to  doubt  the  fact 
of  a  serpent  striking  at  its  prey  from  the  water,  and 
thought  an  alligator  more  likely  to  be  the  culprit,  al- 
though we  had  not  yet  met  with  alligators  in  the  river. 
Some  days  afterward  the  young  men  belonging  to  the 
different  sitios  agreed  to  go  in  search  of  the  serpent.  They 
began  in  a  systematic  manner,  forming  two  parties,  each 
embarked  in  three  or  four  canoes,  and  starting  from  points 
several  miles  apart,  whence  they  gradually  approximated, 
searching  all  the  little  inlets  on  both  sides  the  river.  The 
reptile  was  found  at  last  sunning  itself  on  a  log  at  the 
mouth  of  a  muddy  rivulet,  and  dispatched  with  harpoons. 
I  saw  it  the  day  after  it  was  killed ;  it  was  not  a  very 
large  specimen,  measuring  only  eighteen  feet  nine  inches 
in  length,  and  sixteen  inches  in  circumference  at  the 
widest  part  of  the  body.  I  measured  skins  of  the  anaconda 
afterward  twenty-one  feet  in  length  and  two  feet  in  girth. 
The  reptile  has  a  most  hideous  appearance,  owing  to  its 
being  very  broad  in  the  middle,  and  tapering  abruptly  at 
both  ends.  It  is  very  abundant  in  some  parts  of  the 
country ;  nowhere  more  so  than  in  the  Lago  Grande,  near 
Santarem,  where  it  is  often  seen  coiled  up  in  the  corners 
of  farm-yards,  and  detested  for  its  habit  of  carrying  off 
26 


302     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

poultry,  young  calves,  or  whatever  animal  it  can  get  within 
reach  of. 

^*  At  Ega  a  large  anaconda  was  once  near  making  a 
meal  of  a  young  lad,  about  ten  years  of  age,  belonging  to 
one  of  my  neighbors.  The  father  and  his  son  went  one 
day  in  their  montaria  a  few  miles  up  the  Teffe  to  gather 
wild  fruit,  landing  on  a  sloping  sandy  shore,  where  the 
boy  was  left  to  mind  the  canoe  while  the  man  entered  the 
forest.  The  beaches  of  the  Teffe  form  groves  of  wild 
guava  and  myrtle-trees,  and  during  most  months  of  the 
year  are  partly  overflown  by  the  river.  While  the  boy 
was  playing  in  the  water  under  the  shade  of  these  trees,  a 
huge  reptile  of  this  species  stealthily  wound  its  coils  around 
him  unperceived,  until  it  was  too  late  to  escape.  His  cries 
quickly  brought  the  father  to  the  rescue,  who  rushed  for- 
ward, and,  seizing  the  anaconda  boldly  by  the  head,  tore 
his  jaws  asunder.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  this 
formidable  serpent  grows  to  an  enormous  bulk  and  lives 
to  a  great  age,  for  I  heard  of  specimens  having  been  killed 
which  measured  forty-two  feet  in  length,  or  double  the 
size  of  the  largest  I  had  an  opportunity  of  examining. 
The  natives  of  the  Amazon  country  universally  believe  in 
the  existence  of  a  monster  water-serpent  said  to  be  many 
score  fathoms  in  length,  which  appears  successively  in 
different  parts  of  the  river.  They  call  it  the  Mai  d'agoa 
—the  mother  or  spirit  of  the  water.  This  fable,  which 
was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  occasional  appearance  of 
sucurujus  of  unusually  large  size,  takes  a  great  variety  of 
forms,  and  the  wild  legends  form  the  subject  of  conversa- 
tion among  old  and  young  over  the  wood-fires  in  lonely 
settlements." 

Mr.  Bates  had  this  experience  with  a  boa  constrictor : 
"  One  day,  as  I  was  entomologizing  alone  and  unarmed,  in 


BEASTS  OF  PREY.  303 

a  dry  ygapo,  where  tlie  trees  were  rather  mde  apart  and 
the  ground  coated  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches  with 
dead  leaves,  I  was  near  coming  into  collision  with  a  boa 
constrictor.  I  had  just  entered  a  little  thicket  to  capture 
an  insect,  and  while  pinning  it  was  rather  startled  by  a 
rushing  noise  in  the  vicinity.  I  looked  up  to  the  sky, 
thinking  a  squall  was  coming  on,  but  not  a  breath  of  wind 
stirred  in  the  tree-tops.  On  stepping  out  of  the  bushes  I 
met  face  to  face  a  huge  serpent  coming  down  a  slope,  and 
making  the  dry  twigs  crack  and  fly  with  his  weight  as  he 
moved  over  them.  I  had  very  frequently  met  with  a 
smaller  boa,  the  cutim-hoia^  in  a  similar  way,  and  knew 
from  the  habits  of  the  family  that  there  was  no  danger ; 
so  I  stood  my  ground.  On  seeing  me  the  reptile  suddenly 
turned  and  glided  at  an  accelerated  pace  down  the  path. 
"Wishing  to  take  a  note  of  his  probable  size,  and  the  colors 
and  marldngs  of  his  skin,  I  set  off  after  him ;  but  he  in- 
creased his  speed,  and  I  was  unable  to-  get  near  enough 
for  the  purpose.  There  was  very  little  of  the  serpentine 
movement  in  his  course.  The  rapidly  moving  and  shining 
body  looked  like  a  stream  of  brown  liquid  flowing  over 
the  thick  bed  of  fallen  leaves,  rather  than  a  serpent  with 
skin  of  varied  colors.  He  descended  toward  the  lower 
and  moister  parts  of  the  ygapo.  The  huge  trunk  of  an 
uprooted  tree  here  lay  across  the  road ;  this  he  glided  over 
in  his  undeviating  course,  and  soon  after  penetrated  a 
dense,  swampy  thicket,  where,  of  course,  I  did  not  choose 
to  follow  him." 

The  author  of  "Pioneering  in  South  Brazil"  relates 
this  anecdote,  showing  the  usefulness  of  the  toucan  in  giv- 
ing the  alarm  against  snakes :  "  One  evening  a  caraarada 
came  to  me  to  have  a  tooth  extracted,  but,  as  it  was  then 
dusk,  I  told  him  he  must  wait  till  the  following  day, 


304     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

wlien,  if  he  would  come  to  me  directly  it  was  light,  I 
would  do  what  he  wanted.  I  was  kept  awake  most  of  the 
night  by  being  pestered  by  fleas,  with  which  the  camp 
had  at  this  time  begun  to  swarm.  When  morning  came, 
being  then  almost  worn  out  by  many  nights  of  sleepless- 
ness from  the  same  cause,  I  was  in  a  state  of  torpor,  and 
had  not  aroused  myself  as  usual  immediately  it  became 
lisrht.  The  man  with  toothache  came  three  times,  at  in- 
tervals  of  about  ten  minutes,  and  found  me  asleep  each 
time.  A  minute  after,  coming  the  third  time,  he  heard 
the  toucan  screaming  in  my  rancho,  and  thinking  I  was 
the  cause,  and  that  he  should  now  find  me  awake  and  up, 
at  once  returned,  only  too  anxious  to  have  his  toothache 
cured  without  more  delay.  I  was  not  awake  when  he 
returned,  but  his  vigorous  shout  of  ^  Doutor,  doutor,  co- 
hra  ! '  ('  Doctor,  doctor,  snake ! ')  twice  repeated,  roused 
me  to  a  certain  state  of  consciousness — when,  on  opening 
my  eyes,  the  first  thing  I  saw  were  two  young  frogs  jump- 
ing in  a  great  hurry  along  the  floor  of  the  rancho,  closely 
followed  by  a  black  snake.  The  spectacle,  for  the  two  sec- 
onds during  which  it  lasted,  was  superb.  The  snake  was 
evidently  absorbed  in  the  chase,  oblivious  to  the  sudden 
shout  of  the  man,  or  the  screaming  of  the  toucan.  Its  eye 
was  flashing  like  a  diamond,  and  its  long,  forked  tongue 
was  shooting  in  and  out  with  lightning  rapidity,  as,  with 
head  erect  and  held  perfectly  steady,  it  glided  with  a  swift, 
rocking  motion  of  its  supple  body  in  pursuit,  seeming  as 
though  moved  by  some  invisible,  magic  force.  For  these 
two  seconds  the  picture  was  absolutely  perfect.  I  had 
never  beheld  so  fascinating  an  object,  when,  lo !  just  as  I 
expected  to  see  it  strike  one  of  the  frogs,  a  big,  rude  paddle 
descended  upon  its  back,  and  only  a  hideous  writhing  object 
remained,  biting  the  dust  in  agony.     I  was  quite  angry 


BEASTS  OF  PBEY.  305 

with  the  man  for  the  moment  for  summarily  spoiling  the 
chase ;  but  when  I  knew  that  the  reptile,  to  whose  exist- 
ence he  had  thus  put  an  end,  was  only  less  deadly  than 
the  cascavel,  and  withal  far  more  active  in  its  movements, 
I  lost  my  momentary  sympathy  for  it.  In  this  case,  if  it 
had  not  been  for  the  toucan  in  the  first  instance,  the  snake 
might  have  remained  lurking  about  my  rancho  beneath  the 
boxes  with  which  it  was  filled  for  days,  until  perhaps  its 
presence  had  been  made  known  after  the  disagreeable 
manner  of  Morant's  snake. 

"  The  Brazilians  say  that  there  is  a  certain  snake  which 
they  call  cobra  casada,  or  married  snake,  which  it  is  dan- 
gerous to  kill  near  any  habitation ;  or,  having  killed  it,  to 
trail  it  along  the  ground  to  any  house,  because  its  mate  is 
certain  to  follow  it  by  scent,  and,  on  finding  it  dead,  will 
savagely  attack  any  person  it  can  find  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. I  do  not  know  what  foundation  there  is  for  this 
story.  I  should  tliink  that  I  have  seen  and  myself  killed 
at  least  a  hundred  snakes  of  various  kinds  in  Brazil,  but  I 
never  knew  one  that  showed  any  disposition  to  willfully 
attack.  The  utmost  any  have  done  has  been  to  remain 
still,  in  readiness  to  strike  when  touched  or  threatened. 
In  the  majority  of  instances  they  have  tried  to  flee. 

"  Soon  after  this  I  had  a  very  disagreeable  rencontre 
with  a  jararaca^  which  dropped  into  my  canoe  from  an 
overhanging  branch  as  I  was  paddHng  gently  up-stream 
under  the  bank.  As  the  snake  dropped  in,  I  tumbled  out 
into  the  river.  Fortunately,  it  happened  close  to  the  camp, 
and,  in  answer  to  my  shouts,  somebody  came  down  to  the 
landing-place  and  captured  the  canoe  as  it  was  drifting 
past,  and  killed  the  snake." 

The  adventure  of  Morant,  which  he  refers  to,  occurred 
two  hundred  miles  distant,  and  is  thus  related :  "  It  ap- 


306     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

peared  that  one  night,  after  lie  and  his  tent-companion, 
Von  Sydow,  had  retired  to  bed,  the  latter  was  aroused  by- 
feeling,  as  he  thought,  some  animal  sucking  his  finger. 
He  drew  his  hand  away,  and  then  struck  a  light,  to  find 
out  what  it  might  be  that  had  taken  such  a  fancy  to  him, 
but  could  see  nothing.  Meanwhile  Morant  was  lying 
asleep  on  his  low  camp-bed  at  the  other  end  of  the  tent, 
about  ten  feet  distant.  The  night  being  very  warm,  and 
there  being  no  mosquitoes  to  guard  against,  he  was  lying 
with  one  arm  and  shoulder  nude  above  the  blanket.  The 
constant  movements  of  Yon  Sydow,  who  was  doctoring 
his  sucked  finger,  at  length  caused  him  to  arouse  himself 
slightly,  but  just  sufficient  to  make  him  conscious  that 
there  was  soihething  wTong  about  him.  '  I  felt,'  he  said, 
'  something  heavy  on  my  chest,  and  cold  around  my  arm ; 
I  opened  my  eyes,  and,  by  the  light  that  Sydow  was 
using,  to  my  intense  horror  and  dismay  beheld  a  long 
head  and  neck  waving  backward  and  forward  a  few  inches 
above  my  face.  It  was  a  snake.  I  dared  not  stir,  for  I 
felt  that  its  body  was  twined  round  my  arm,  and  that  the 
slightest  motion  on  my  part  might  cause  the  reptile  to 
drive  its  fangs  into  me.  I  called  out  gently  to  Sydow, 
and  said,  '  Sydow,  there  is  a  snake  on  my  arm — what  is 
to  be  done  ? '  Sydow  answered,  *  Yes,  yes !  ya,  ya !  very 
good,'  as  though  he  thought  it  an  excellent  joke ;  and  I 
knew  that  he  did  not  understand  me,  but  probably  im- 
agined that  I  was  talking  about  his  finger.  (Yon  Sydow 
was  a  Swede,  and  only  knew  a  few  words  of  English.) 
I  spoke  to  him  again  and  said,  '  Sydow,  snake,  snake ! ' 
but  he  did  not  understand  me,  and  only  laughed,  and  an- 
swe:ced,  '  Ya,  ya ! '  I  did  not  dare  to  shout  out  loud  for 
fear  of  exciting  the  snake,  which  was  still  gently  waving 
its  head  before  my  face.     Something  had  to  be  done,  and 


BEASTS  OF  PREY.  307 

that  very  soon,  for  no  mortal  could  long  bear  this  agony 
of  suspense. 

"  The  moment  came  when  I  could  restrain  myself  no 
longer.  I  jumped  up  in  bed,  and  simultaneously,  with  aU 
the  force  of  long-restrained  fear  and  horror,  threw  out  my 
arm,  with  the  cold,  deadly  folds  of  the  snake  still  twined 
round  it,  hurling  the  reptile  violently  on  to  the  ground 
by  the  suddenness  and  energy  of  the  movement,  before  it 
had  time  to  strike. 

"  While  I  was  looking  for  a  weapon  of  some  sort  with 
which  to  kill  it,  it  had  glided  out  beneath  the  wall  of  the 
tent  and  disappeared.  .  .  . 

"  Yon  Sydow  to  this  hour  believes  that  Morant's  snake 
was  the  very  animal  that  sucked  his  finger." 

The  same  author  relates  several  other  anecdotes,  but 
says  the  number  of  snakes  found  on  the  prairie — where 
this  last  incident  occurred — is  small  when  compared  with 
the  multitudes  which  exist  in  the  forests.  It  was  in  the 
forest  that  he  was  employed,  and  scarcely  a  day  passed 
without  what  might  be  termed  a  snake  adventure  happen- 
ing to  some  one  of  the  party. 


CHAPTEE  XYIII. 

SLAVERY   AND   EMANCIPATION. 

The  first  and  greatest  sugar-growing  region  of  Brazil, 
Femambuco,  is  exactly  opposite  the  valley  of  tlie  Congo ; 
the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  is  opposite  that  of  the  Xiger. 
With  Africa  thus  so  handy,  it  is  no  wonder  the  early 
planters  in  Brazil  availed  themselves  of  Ethiopian  labor, 
and  that  the  slave-trade  soon  grew  into  a  profitable  and 
persistent  business.  Immediately  after  Portugal's  recog- 
nition of  the  independence  of  Brazil  in  182G,  a  treaty 
was  made  between  Great  Britain  and  Brazil  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  slave-trade ;  however,  in  those  times  and 
for  many  years  afterward,  the  influence  of  the  slavehold- 
ing  class  in  Brazil  was  powerful  enough  to  counteract  the 
wishes  of  any  humane  magistrate  or  statesman  in  that 
country  who  may  have  m-ged  the  enforcement  of  that 
treaty,  and  the  slave-trade  continued  to  flourish.  Mr. 
Christie,  a  former  British  minister  in  Brazil,  in  his  "  ^otes 
on  Brazilian  Questions,"  published  in  1865,  says  of  the 
action  of  the  Government :  "  Left  to  itself,  it  did  nothing ; 
it  treated  for  a  long  time  with  neglect  representations  of 
the  English  Government ;  it  did  not  answer  notes.  "When 
obliged  to  reply,  it  protested  that  its  dignity  did  not  allow 
it  to  act  while  pressed  by  a  foreign  government ;  it  re- 
sented interference,  and  clamored  to  be  left  free  to  exe- 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  309 

cute  its  own  laws,  forgetting  that  treaty  stipulations  gave 
a  right  to  England  to  interfere.  At  last,  after  force  had 
been  nsed,  and  the  English  Government  was  known  to  be 
serious,  and  there  seemed  no  help  for  it,  it  has  done  what 
it  ought  to  have  done  long  before."  Speaking  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Brazilian  authorities  in  regard  to  the  treaty 
for  the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade.  Lord  Aberdeen,  in 
1845,  said,  ''  With  rare  exceptions  the  treaty  has  been  by 
them  systematically  violated  from  the  period  of  its  con- 
clusion to  the  present  time."  At  that  time  the  clandes- 
tine importation  of  African  slaves  into  Brazil  was  esti- 
mated at  seventy  thousand  annually,  of  whom,  no  doubt, 
some  are  still  toiling  on  plantations.  Mr.  Christie  states 
that  it  was  estimated  that  a  million  slaves  had  been  im- 
ported since  the  formal  abolition  of  the  trade  by  treaty. 

John  Candler  and  Wilson  Burgess,  members  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  went  from  England  to  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
in  1852,  with  an  address  to  the  Emperor,  and  on  their 
return  from  Brazil  they  wrote:  "The  late  conduct  of 
Great  Britain  in  chasing  slavers  into  the  harbors  of  Brazil, 
and  making  seizures  of  them  under  its  very  forts,  has  con- 
tributed mainly  to  stimulate  the  Government  of  Brazil  to 
put  down  the  African  slave-trade  in  that  country.  It 
deeply  wounded  the  pride  of  the  nation  to  see  its  past 
insincerity  and  bad  faith  thus  exposed  before  the  whole 
world ;  the  Emperor,  therefore,  resolved  to  take  the  mat- 
ter at  once  into  his  own  hands,  and  by  bold  measures  to 
crush  the  traiSc."  So  the  dispatch  of  Mr.  Henry  South- 
em,  the  British  diplomatic  representative  in  Brazil,  of 
May  10,  1852,  shows  the  admission  of  the  Brazilian  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Affairs  that  it  was  the  compulsory  meas- 
ures of  Great  Britain  which  enabled  the  Brazilian  Cabinet 
to  influence  their  countrymen  in  co-operating  to  support, 


310    BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PEOSPECTS. 

or,  at  least,  in  not  opposing,  measures  to  put  down  the 
slave-trade. 

In  a  letter  of  the  distinguished  Brazilian,  Mr.  Joaquim 
Kabuco,  who  has  spent  several  years  in  England,  and  who 
received  very  strong  support  as  candidate  for  deputy  in 
his  native  city,  Peniambuco,  published  September  11, 
1884,  he  says:  "The  Conservative  opposition  now  de- 
nounce the  Emperor  as  the  chief  of  the  abolition  propa- 
ganda, ascribe  the  Dantas  project  to  the  pressure  of  the 
Emperor,  and  endeavor  by  every  means  to  identify  him 
with  abolitionism.  Some  of  the  Kepublicans — I  say  some, 
because  the  Republican  party  is  to-day  divided  on  the 
question  of  emancipation — declare  that  the  Consei-vatives 
are  serving  the  republic  by  their  attacks  upon  the  mon- 
archy. .  .  .  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  from  1840  to  1850 
the  Emperor  struggled  constantly  for  the  suppression  of 
the  slave-trade,  encountering  the  greatest  resistance ;  that 
from  1865  to  1871  he  made  great  efforts  for  the  freedom 
of  the  future  offspring  of  slave  mothers ;  and,  finally,  that 
in  1884  he  resolutely  decided  on  the  liberation  of  slaves 
of  sixty  years  of  age  and  upward,  and  of  others  by  means 
of  emancipation.  But  this  will  not  compare  for  example 
with  the  act  of  Alexander  II.  Dom  Pedro  II  has  reigned 
forty-four  years,  and  the  capital  of  the  empire  which  boasts 
of  being  the  first  city  in  South  America  is  yet  a  slave- 
market." 

Slavery  having  existed,  as  it  still  does,  in  all  latitudes 
of  Brazil,  it  has  never  occasioned  that  bitter  local  or  sec- 
tional feeling  which  it  caused  in  the  United  States.  It 
could,  therefore,  have  scarcely  led  to  such  a  catastrophe 
as  it  produced  in  our  country.  Still,  the  Brazilians,  in 
taking  steps  for  emancipation,  were  probably  somewhat 
influenced  by  American  experience,  as  weU  as  by  the 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  311 

reprobation  of  mankind,  the  steady  and  industrious  be- 
havior of  the  freed  people  in  the  United  States  affording 
an  especially  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  liberation. 
And,  it  appears  to  me,  the  Brazilians  are  entitled  to  praise 
for  wise  statesmanship  in  having  solved  their  slavery 
problem  in  a  peaceful  manner,  even  though  their  system 
of  emancipation  is  slow. 

The  one  important  feature  of  the  Emancipation  Act 
of  Brazil  of  September  28,  1871 — sometimes  called  the 
Eio  Branco  law,  from  the  name  of  the  prime  minister  of 
the  time — is  the  provision  that  all  children  bom  of  slave 
mothers  after  the  passage  of  that  act  shall  become  free 
on  attaining  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  A  few  hundred 
slaves  belonging  to  the  Crown  were  declared  free ;  but 
the  great  mass  of  slaves  born  previous  to  September  28, 
1871,  were  left  in  bondage.  However,  the  act  made  some 
provision  for  a  fund  for  the  purchase  and  liberation  of 
slaves.  It  provided  that  the  tax  on  slaves,  the  tax  on 
their  sale  or  bequest,  the  proceeds  of  certain  lotteries,  the 
fines  collected  under  the  act,  together  with  pubhc  appro- 
priations and  private  donations,  should  constitute  an 
emancipation  fund,  to  be  duly  apportioned  among  the 
several  provinces.  The  whole  amount  raised  from  these 
sources  since  the  passage  of  the  act  has  been,  in  round 
numbers,  six  and  a  half  million  dollars.  By  it  some 
20,000  slaves  had  been  purchased  and  set  free  up  to  1885, 
being  at  an  average  price  for  each  one  of  three  hundred 
and  twenty-five  dollars.  It  is  estimated  that  from  80,000 
to  100,000  have  also  been  set  free  by  private  emancipa- 
tion in  the  same  time ;  also  that  200,000  have  died,  mak- 
ing a  decrease  of  about  320,000  in  the  number  of  slaves 
since  the  passage  of  the  law.  The  number  of  slaves  in 
Brazil,  September  30,  1S73,  according  to  the  registration 


312     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

whicli  was  then  assumed  to  be  complete,  was  1,540,796, 
so  that  the  number  now  in  the  empire  must  be  fully 
1,200,000.  Private  emancipation  is  a  matter  of  frequent 
occurrence  all  over  the  country,  and  is  apparently  encour- 
aged by  the  popular  sympathy.  Indeed,  in  some  locali- 
ties the  cause  has  advanced  with  enthusiasm.  Especially 
in  the  early  part  of  1884,  say  in  March,  there  was  a  strong 
anti-slavery  agitation,  resulting  in  the  formal  declaration 
of  liberation  in  two  of  the  northern  provinces — Amazonas 
and  Ceard.  However,  a  senator  has  lately  declared  that 
slaves  are  still  held  in  both  those  provinces,  and  I  have 
myself  had  misgivings  as  to  whether  abolition  or  emanci- 
pation had  been  fully  carried  out  there.  In  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro mass-meetings  and  fairs  were  held,  eloquent  speeches 
delivered,  streets  were  decorated,  and  other  displays  made 
in  behalf  of  the  abolition  movement,  which  seemed  to 
have  the  support  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  influen- 
tial classes.  Still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  are 
over  a  million  slaves  in  the  empire,  the  most  of  whom 
are  tenaciously  held  in  the  richest  agricultural  districts. 

In  regard  to  the  children  bom  of  slave  mothers  after 
September  28,  1871,  and  who,  by  the  terms  of  the  law, 
are  absolutely  free  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  it  may 
be  supposed  that  such  jealous  and  rigorous  means  of  iden- 
tity have  been  thrown  around  them  that  they  will  be  able 
effectually  to  claim  their  liberty  on  the  very  day  of  their 
majority.  As  a  means,  and  the  only  means,  to  this  end, 
the  Emancipation  Act  provides  that  they  should  all  be 
registered  in  books  kept  by  the  parish  priests.  It  must 
occasion  regret  to  know  that  the  work  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  very  carefully  attended  to.  The  Minister  and 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Com- 
merce, and  Pubhc  Works,  in  his  annual  report,  dated  May 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  313 

10,  1883,  stated  that  the  returns  scarcely  showed  with 
certainty  that,  in  the  city  of  Kio  de  Janeiro  and  in  thir- 
teen provinces,  on  June  30,  1882,  the  number  of  children 
who  had  been  bom  of  slave  mothers  since  September  28, 
1871,  was  173, YT6.  Returns  in  respect  of  such  minors 
were  wholly  wanting  from  seven  provinces,  including  the 
three  large  and  populous  agricultural  provinces  of  Bahia, 
Sao  Paulo,  and  Minas-Geraes. 

On  large  and  rich  plantations,  where  there  are  several 
hundred  slaves,Jlie_organization,  discipline,  and  treatment 
in  every  wa;y^j£e^ likely  to  be  much  better  than  on  planta- 
tions where  there  are  but  few.  On  plantations  having, 
say,  twenty^Iaves  or  thereabout,  one  will  sometimes  see 
them  hurried  in  their  steps  and  work  by  pricking  them 
with  a  long  stick  having  a  sharp-pointed  iron  in  one  end 
of  it.  Women  as  well  as  men  are  to-day  goaded  like 
beasts  on  many  Brazilian  plantations.  Flogging  is  a  very 
frequent  method  of  enforcing  discipline.  Indeed,  in  early 
times  flogging  seems  to  have  been  a  pretty  general  system 
of  punishment.  Once  a  Brazilian  offender  claimed  to  be 
exempt  from  it  from  being  half  hidalgo ;  but  the.  magis- 
trate ordered  half  his  body  to  be  flogged,  and  left  him  to 
determine  which  half  was  hidalgo ! 

A  recent  authoritative  and  fair  account  of  slavery  as 
it  now  exists  in  Brazil  is  contained  in  the  speech  in  the 
Brazilian  Senate,  which  was  delivered  June  9,  1884,  by 
Senator  Ottoni,  an  old  statesman  representing  in  part  the 
great  province  of  Minas-Geraes,  and  who  is  distinguished 
for  the  independence  and  candor  of  his  views : 

"Ever    since    this    question   has   become    somewhat 

heated,"  said  he,  "  I  have  constantly  heard  the  stanchest 

supporters  of  slavery  say,  'I,  too,  am  an  emancipator.' 

Who  is  not  ?    We  all  are.     But,  when  any  measure  is 

27 


SU     BRAZIL:    ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPEOPS. 

mentioned,  they  say,  'Kot.that,  because  the  planters  can 
not  bear  it.'  They  want  emancipation,  they  say,  yet  no 
efficacious  step  in  this  direction  pleases  them.  They  only 
want  a  drawling  progress — I  am  wrong ;  they  want  the 
mystification  of  the  Emancipation  Act  of  September  28, 
1871.  According  to  the  progression  with  which  we  are 
executing  that  law  as  it  stands,  the  real  emancipator  is 
Death.  There  have  died,  since  1871,  at  least  some  haK- 
million  of  slaves,  while  in  the  same  period  the  state  has 
emancipated  less  than  twenty  thousand.  Let  us  calculate 
the  end  of  slavery  according  to  the  present  state  of  things. 
The  youngest  slaves  are  those  born  in  1871  prior  to  the 
passing  of  the  law ;  many  of  these  will  attain  to  eighty 
years  of  age,  some  even  to  one  hundred,  but  let  us  say 
eighty  years  of  age ;  and  thus  only  in  1950,  the  very  mid- 
dle of  the  twentieth  century,  will  Death  complete  his 
work.  This  state  of  things  is  unworthy  of  a  civilized 
nation.  ...  I  know  not  if  I  am  a  pessimist — God  grant 
that  I  may  be !  God  grant  that  I  may  be  a  simple  vision- 
ary ! — ^but  the  present  state  of  the  Brazilian  nation  appears 
to  me  critical  and  beset  with  dangers.  Certain  events  are 
taking  place  around  us  which,  in  my  opinion,  are  imperil- 
ing public  peace,  tending  to  thwart  the  execution  of  the 
laws,  annulling  the  action  of  our  tribunals,  and  are  on  the 
high-road  to  establish  a  ferocious  and  bloody  anarchy. 
First,  then,  the  effronteries  and  crimes  committed  by  the 
slaves  against  their  masters,  overseers,  and  drivers  have 
multiplied  deplorably  and  with  disquieting  frequency  of 
late  years.  It  is  a  lamentable  fact  which  ought  to  be 
studied  by  the  authorities.  When  attention  was  called 
to  this  fact  in  the  lower  house,  it  was  answered  that  it 
was  nothing  new,  that  such  had  always  been  the  case ;  but 
that  answer,  if  sincere,  showed  very  little  reflection.   What 


SLAYEEY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  315 

we  are  witnessing  now  has  never  been  seen  before.  The 
few  crimes  of  this  kind,  committed  at  long  intervals,  did 
not  present  the  serious  characteristics  which  distinguish 
these  crimes  now.  Formerly,  the  criminal  fled,  or  he 
denied  the  fact,  or  he  tried  to  escape  the  penalty  of  the 
law ;  now,  however,  he  murders,  and  goes  immediately  to 
the  authorities  and  dehvers  himseK  up,  saying,  We  have 
committed  a  murder ;  we  want  to  be  punished.  It  is  this 
which  increases  the  gravity  of  the  situation.  I,  Mr.  Presi- 
dent, have  completed  my  seventy-third  year ;  for  more 
than  haK  a  century  I  have  had  the  full  use  of  my  facul- 
ties. I  see,  I  hear,  I  observe,  and  I  can  bearjwitness  that 
the  treatment  of  slaves  inJBraziLhaa,  gone  on- steadily  im- 
proving. 

"  Before  the  slave-trade  was  abolished,  and  while  tlie 
slavers  were  deluging  our  shores  with  legions  of  dull- 
witted  Africans,  who  were  bought  for  a  mere  song,  the 
slave-owners  generally  were  careless  of  the  duration  of 
the  lives  of  their  slaves ;  even  those  (and  they  happily 
constituted  the  majority)  who  were  incapable  of  iU-treat- 
ing  them,  or  of  cruelly  punishing  them,  even  they  reck- 
lessly sacrificed  the  life  of  the  slave  to  excess  of  work. 
There  were  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  of  severe  labor  in 
sun  and  rain ;  there  were  still  two  hours  at  night  in  culti- 
vating cereals  for  their  own  food  and  that  of  the  domestic 
animals ;  and  there  was  in  addition  an  hour  at  daybreak 
in  cleaning  up  the  drying-ground  ready  for  the  cofifee — 
making  fifteen  or  sixteen  hours  of  grinding  toil,  which  no 
constitution  can  stand.  And  to  this  must  be  added  in- 
sufficient or  inadequate  food,  and  for  clothing  something 
just  short  of  absolute  nakedness. 

"  It  was  commonly  held  among  the  slaveholders,  and 
I  have  heard  it  from  many,  that  the  net  proceeds  of  the 


316     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

first  year's  labor  of  a  slave  were  at  least  enough  to  cover 
his  cost ;  that  the  second  and  following  years  were  clear 
profit.  Why,  then,  said  they,  should  we  bother  ourselves 
about  them,  when  we  can  so  easily  get  fresh  ones  at  such 
a  low  price  ?  But  when  the  slave-trade  was  extinguished 
the  price  of  the  slave  advanced,  and  his  treatment  began 
at  once  to  be  more  humane.  The  cholera,  which  deci- 
mated the  slave  population,  resulted  in  vastly  improving 
his  treatment,  his  dwelling,  his  clothing,  in  his  being 
withdrawn  from  the  field  in  wet  weather,  etc. ;  and  the 
law  of  the  28th  of  September  still  further  improved  his 
condition.  To-day  there  is  no  question  that  the  condition 
of  the  Brazihan  slave  is  no  whit  inferior  to  that  of  the  la- 
borer in  the  great  nations  of  Europe ;  and  yet,  at  the  very 
time  that  his  condition  has  been  so  immensely  improved, 
his  irritability  and  ferocity  are  on  the  increase — facts  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  all  those  who  bestow  a  thought  on 
the  future  of  this  country. 

"  But,  parallel  to  these  facts,  there  are  arising  others 
equally  lamentable,  still  more  reprehensible,  for  they  are 
committed  by  free  men.  I  refer  to  the  expulsion  from 
their  domicile  of  those  judges  who  have  given  certain  de- 
cisions, by  individuals  collected  and  armed,  and  who  have 
been  called  the  populace.  I  refer  to  the  expulsion  of  ad- 
vocates who  petition  the  courts  for  the  judicial  freedom 
of  a  slave ;  and,  on  a  par  with  these  still  more  astounding 
abuses,  the  invasion  of  the  jails,  and  the  forcible  with- 
drawal of  criminals,  who  are  hacked  to  pieces  in  the  pub- 
lic square.  And,  what  is  most  alarming,  is  the  silence 
preserved  about  each  one  of  these  facts !  To  the  expelled 
judge  the  Government  gives  another  district ;  as  to  the 
citizens  violently  assailed  in  their  rights,  they  are  left  to 
settle  those  matters  among  themselves;  and  no  one  has 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  317 

yet  heard  say  that  the  author  or  authors  of  a  single  one  of 
these  attacks  on  jails  and  of  murders  of  prisoners  had  been 
discovered — people  content  themselves  with  saying,  ^Itis 
lynch  law.' 

("  Among  the  planters  of  a  large  part  of  the  south  of 
the  empire  there  is  a  wide-spread  compact  to  bring  press- 
ure upon  the  jury  to  acquit  slave  offenders  so  they  may 
be  handed  over  to  their  owners,  who  naturally  administer 
justice  with  their  own  hands.  That  this  is  the  general 
incHnation  among  the  coffee-planters  I  know  for  a  fact.    ' 

"There  are  yet  other  symptoms  which  are  equally 
serious.  Let  the  Senate  just  mark  the  line  which  is  being 
followed  by  the  planters'  clubs  founded  in  nearly  aU  the 
municipalities  of  the  provinces  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Minas, 
and  Sao  Paulo.  The  statutes  of  some  clubs  contain  arti- 
cles which  imply  that  they  are  constituting  themselves  an 
iinperium  in  im/perio,  completely  eliminating  the  appli- 
cation of  the  laws  and  the  action  of  the  authorities.  .  .  . 
One  great  reason  the  planters  give  for  taldng  such  steps 
for  their  mutual  jjrotection  is  the  failure  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  execute  the  death-penalty  for  high  crimes  com- 
mitted by  slaves.  But  the  gallows  is  no  remedy  for  the 
state  of  things  which  I  have  described  to  the  Senate; 
what  we  have  to  do  is  to  clear  up  the  point  to  our  coun- 
trymen, and  leave  the  Crown  free  to  exercise  the  power 
conferred  upon  it  by  the  Constitution.  .  .  . 

"  For  five  years,  from  1866  to  1871,  the  promise  of  the 
freedom  of  the  wretched  slaves,  like  a  ray  of  sunlight 
penetrated  from  tlie  throne  to  every  comer  of  the  empire. 
We  all  remember  the  journeys  into  the  interior  which  the 
chief  of  state  made  at  that  time,  and  how,  if  it  was  not  a 
working-day;  the  slaves  lined  the  road  on  both  sides,  and 
on  their  knees  blessed  their  redeemer  as  he  passed.     The 


318     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

five  years  of  these  golden  hopes  passed,  the  hour  of  their 
realization  arrived  in  the  law  of  the  28th  of  September, 
and  the  undeceiving  of  these  poor  wretches  was  sad  and 
complete.  The  law  declared  that  those  who  should  be 
bom  thenceforward  should  be  free,  but  as  a  fact  it  made 
no  such  provision,  for  it  left  them  in  bondage  until  thej 
were  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Still,  it  at  least  assured 
them  of  freedom  on  their  attaining  their  majority.  But 
what  did  it  do  for  the  existing  generation  ?  It  spoke  of 
their  gradual  emancipation  in  such  terms  as  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  describe  as  ''jpara  Inglez  ver '  "  (for  the  English 
to  see). 

Mr.  Da  Motta  :  "  They  were  hoodwinked." 

Mr.  Jaguakibe  :  "  It  is  the  administrators  of  the  law 
who  have  not  carried  it  out ;  that's  what's  the  matter." 

Mr.  Ottoni  :  "  ISTo,  sir ;  it  comes  from  the  law  and  its 
administrators." 

Mr.  Da  Motta  :  "  Hear,  hear ! " 

Mr.  Jaqitaeibe  :  "  The  law  was  the  thin  end  of  the 
wedge ;  and,  had  it  not  been  for  that,  there  would  be  no 
propaganda  to-day." 

Mr.  Ottoni  :  "  The  report  of  the  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture for  the  present  year  only  too  justly  laments  that 
the  state  has  succeeded  in  emancipating  only  nineteen 
thousand  slaves,  when  during  the  same  pariod  there  have 
died,  according  to  the  report,  one  hundred  and  ninety-one 
thousand.  But  far  greater  would  be  the  regret  and  the 
disappointment  of  the  noble  ex-Minister  of  Agriculture 
were  he  to  reflect  that  the  figures  of  this  part  of  his  report 
are  notoriously  and  willfully  false  ! " 

Mr.  Da  Motta  :  "  Hear,  hear  !  " 

Mr.  Ottoni:  "Notoriously  and  willfully  false,  as  has 
already  been  proved  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  without 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  319 

any  steps  having  been  taken  in  consequence  I  These  fig- 
ures would  give,  calculated  progressively,  an  annual  death- 
rate  of  a  little  over  one  per  cent,  barely  one  and  a  quarter 
per  cent.  Kow,  I  will  venture  to  say  that  no  nucleus  of 
population  in  the  whole  world,  even  of  free  men,  shows 
so  low  a  death-rate ;  it  is  everywhere  over  two  per  cent. 
Besides,  who  does  not  know  that  the  deaths  of  the  planta- 
tion slaves  are  never  registered  ?  Who  is  there  that  is  ig- 
norant that  the  planters  of  a  certain  class  have  cemeteries 
on  their  estates,  where  they  bury  the  corpses  of  their  slaves 
without  holding  themselves  accountable  to  any  one,  and 
without  any  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  ? 

"  The  regulations  for  the  execution  of  the  law  of  the 
28th  of  September  require  that  notice  shall  be  given  of 
the  deaths  of  the  registered  slaves,  and  impose  fines  for 
non-compliance ;  but  the  required  notice  is  never  given, 
and  no  fine  has  ever  been  inflicted  yet.  And  here  is  the 
proper  place  for  me  to  reply  to  the  noble  senator  who 
just  now  interrupted  me :  the  executors  execute  ill  what- 
ever is  mischievous  in  the  law,  and  destroy  all  the  good 
that  it  may  contain.  The  result  is,  that  while  the  state 
emancipates  nineteen  thousand  slaves,  death  Hberates  half 
a  million  probably — some  four  or  five  hundred  thousand, 
perhaps.  .  .  . 

"  I  am  an  emancipationist,  but  profoundly  discontented 
with  everything  that  has  been  done,  and  still  more  so 
with  the  obstinacy  which  wants  to  do  nothing  in  the  direc- 
tion of  developing  this  principle.  The  result  of  this  dis- 
content must  necessarily  be  the  going  over  to  abolition. 
I  regret,  as  I  have  already  stated,  this  tendency ;  but  I 
wish  still  to  hope  on,  especially  after  hearing  the  promises 
made  by  the  ministry.  ...  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  any 
radical  measure  which  it  may  propose  in  this  direction 


320     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

will  meet  with  the  assent  of  the  majority  of  the  Chamber. 
Should  such,  however,  not  be  the  case,  it  would  be  a  glori- 
ous mission  for  the  ministry  to  present  its  radical  measure, 
and  to  dissolve  the  Chamber  for  that  reason ;  thus  facili- 
tating the  organization  of  the  two  parties — emancipation- 
ist and  pro-slavery — the  only  two  which  have  any  right  to 
exist  at  the  present  time." 

The  Cabinet  of  Senator  Dantas,  including  much  of 
the  best  talent  and  parliamentary  influence  of  the  Liberal 
party,  and  a  chief  of  undoubted  capacity  for  government, 
came  into  office  June  5,  1884,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
through  some  further  measure  of  emancipation.  On  the 
15th  of  July  following,  the  long-looked  for  plan  was  pre- 
sented in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  a  member  from 
Bahia,  Mr.  Rodolpho  Dantas,  a  son  of  the  prime  minister. 
The  main  provisions  of  the  bill  were,  that  slaves  who 
have  attained  or  shall  attain  the  age  of  sixty  years  are  de- 
clared free,  without  pay  to  their  owners ;  a  new  registra- 
tion was  to  be  made,  and  a  tax  of  five  per  cent  on  all 
slaves,  according  to  a  specified  valuation,  collected  for  an 
emancipation  fund. 

Mr.  Penido,  Liberal,  submitted  this  motion:  "The 
Chamber,  disapproving  the  Government  bill  on  slavery, 
denies  its  confidence  to  the  Government,"  which  was 
adopted  by  fifty-nine  votes  for  it  to  fifty-two  against  it. 

The  ministry  then  decided,  with  the  Emperor's  ap- 
proval, on  appeahng  to  the  country,  if  the  right  of  suffrage 
of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  in  a  population  of  thir- 
teen million  can  be  so  called.  A  dissolution  of  the  Cham- 
ber, whose  term  of  four  years  was  nearly  up  anyhow,  was 
decreed;  but  meantime  the  General  Assembly  devoted 
its  attention  to  the  appropriation  bills. 

On  the  20th  of  March  the  prime  minister,  Mr.  Dantas, 


SLAVERY   AND  EMANCIPATION.  321 

had  delivered  a  speech  in  the  Senate  principally  with 
reference  to  his  scheme  of  emancipation,  but  in  which, 
from  the  turn  of  the  previous  discussion,  he  was  diverted 
into  a  number  of  topics.  In  the  course  of  his  speech  he 
said  that,  while  twenty  thousand  slaves  had  been  freed 
by  the  emancipation  fund,  some  three  hundred  thousand 
had  been  emancipated  by  death  since  the  act  of  Septem- 
ber 28,  1871. 

The  following  is  a  speech  which  he  did  not  deliver : 
"  Mr.  President,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  as  presiding  officer 
of  a  public  meeting  in  London  in  August  last,  delivered 
an  address,  in  which  he  said :  '  Then,  as  to  Brazil,  you  are 
probably  aware  that,  while  all  the  small  republics  of 
South  America  put  an  end  to  slavery  when  they  ceased 
connection  with  Spain,  Brazil  alone  retains  the  curse  she 
inherited  from  lier  Portuguese  rulers.  At  the  present 
moment  Brazil  possesses  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  of 
slaves  on  her  vast  plantations,  many  of  whom  lead  a  hfe 
worse  than  that  of  beasts  of  burden.'  Our  country  is  get- 
ting the  ill-will  of  foreigners  in  consequence  of  slavery. 
Besides,  there  is  an  important  anti-slavery  sentiment  in 
our  own  country  which  demands  some  additional  and  rea- 
sonable measure  of  emancipation.  Thejyusiness  and  in- 
dustrial interests  of  the  country  require  that  something 
be  done  to  allay  agitation  and  discontent.  The  plan  of 
the  ministry  is  to  emancipate  absolutely  and  without  com- 
pensation to  the  owners  all  slaves  who  have  reached  the 
age  of  sixty  years.  Objection  is  made  to  this  on  the 
ground  that  it  imposes  on  the  slaveholder  too  great  a 
sacrifice.  "Well,  it  would  be  pleasant  for  the  state  to  buy 
the  freedom  of  these  slaves  if  it  could  afford  to  do  so. 
The  state,  however,  is  now  so  deeply  in  debt,  and  the 
currency  so  greatly  depreciated,  that  it  would  not  be  pru- 


322     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

dent  to  increase  the  indebtedness  for  this  object.  To 
increase  taxation  wonld  be  equally  objectionable,  because 
taxes  on  imports  and  exports  are  now  exceedingly  high. 
Indeed,  a  part  of  the  public  financial  burden  was  incurred 
for  railroads  and  other  improvements  which  have  en- 
hanced the  value  of  plantations.  Were  it  not  for  the  very 
difiicult  financial  situation  of  the  country,  we  would  all, 
I  think,  most  cheerfully  compensate  the  masters  for  every 
slave  proposed  to  be  liberated. 

"  Butj  after  all,  is  it  much  of  a  sacrifice  for  the  owners 
to  liberate  without  pay  those  slaves  who  are  sixty  years 
old  ?  In  briefly  considering  this  question,  I  do  so  with 
feelings  of  respect  and  kindness  to  the  slaveholding 
planters,  who,  collectively,  are  as  estimable  a  class  of  peo- 
ple as  we  have.  Let  us  look  at  the  matter  in  the  light  of 
the  present  day — and  which,  be  assured,  has  penetrated 
to  the  cabin  of  the  slave — as  a  simple  question  of  labor 
and  wages,  devoid  of  sentiment  and  of  traditional  preju- 
dice. We  find,  then,  in  our  country  a  class  of  men  and 
women  of  African  descent,  aged  sixty  years,  who  have 
been  kept  at  compulsory  labor  for  forty  years  without 
receiving  wages.  What  have  they  earned  ?  What  gain 
have  the  masters  derived  from  their  toil  all  these  forty 
years  ?  If  we  can  ascertain  this,  then  we  can  better  under- 
stand whether  or  not  it  will  be  a  sacrifice  for  the  masters 
now  to  terminate  without  indemnity  this  relation  of  com- 
pulsory labor  without  wages.  The  average  wages  of  an 
agricultural  laborer  in  Brazil  have  been  one  milreis  per 
day ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  work  he  would  do  to  earn  this 
amount,  he  would  perform  the  labor  necessary  to  raise  the 
subsistence  for  himself  and  family.  The  slave,  fulfilling 
daily  an  allotted  task,  imquestionably  has  earned  more 
than  the  average  free  laborer  working  for  wages ;  but,  to 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  323 

be  surely  in  the  limits  of  moderation,  let  ns  assume  that 
the  average  net  earnings  of  a  slave,  male  and  female,  have 
been  only  half  a  milreis  a  day,  and  that  there  have  been 
in  each  year  as  many  as  eighty-five  days  in  which  he  did 
not  vrork.  His  net  earnings,  then,  have  amounted  to  one 
hundred  and  forty  milreis  (at  ]3resent  exchange,  fifty-two 
dollars  of  United  States  money)  per  year.  Since  he  was 
twenty  years  old,  or  during  forty  years,  he  has,  at  this 
rate,  earned  five  thousand  six  hundred  milreis.  But, 
when  he  had  finished  twenty  years'  work,  he  had,  at  the 
same  rate,  earned  haK  that  amount — say,  two  thousand 
eight  hundred  milreis — which  sum,  if  it  had  been  put  at 
interest,  would  have  doubled  in  the  next  twenty  years. 
Add  this  to  his  earnings,  and  we  have  eight  thousand  four 
hundred  milreis  (8,400$000 ;  in  United  States  money, 
$3,108)  as  the  net  amount  of  what  his  master  has  de- 
rived from  his  labor  during  forty  years,  and  at  the  time 
he  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty  years  at  half  a  milreis  a 
day.  Twenty  years  ago  the  average  value  of  a  field-slave 
was  fifteen  hundred  milreis,  and  forty  years  ago  it  was 
less.  Even  deduct  from  these  net  earnings  the  original 
cost  of  the  slave,  and  interest  thereon,  and  we  see  that  the 
master  can  liberate  him  at  the  age  of  sixty,  and  stiU  hold 
a  very  substantial  balance  of  earnings  in  his  hands. 

"  Mr.  President,  the  world  moves.  We  live  in  a  time 
when,  by  steam  communication,  telegraphs,  and  news- 
papers, thought  travels  rapidly.  However  ilhterate  the 
slave  may  be,  he  is  not  to-day  ignorant  of  public  senti- 
ment and  of  what  is  due  to  labor.  I  appeal  to  the  plant- 
ers and  their  representatives  to  be  wise  in  time,  and  to 
accept  the  proposition  now  offered.  If  they  do  not,  who 
can  guarantee  that  in  the  future  they  will  receive  one  as 
favorable?     The  United  States  was  a  peace-loving  and 


324     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

tranquil  country,  yet  African  slavery,  just  such  as  we 
have  among  us,  threw  it  into  a  paroxysm  of  civil  war 
which,  during  an  entire  generation,  involved  the  slave- 
holders in  distress,  and  in  many  instances  caused  their 
absolute  ruin.  Let  us  profit  by  their  experience,  and  give 
some  token  that  we  respect  the  anti-slavery  sentiment  of 
our  country." 

For  several  succeeding  days  one  or  two  speeches  a  day 
on  the  slavery  question  were  made  by  different  senators, 
and  of  length  sufficient  to  fill  about  a  whole  page  of  the 
big  "  Jomal  do  Commercio,"  but,  as  a  rule,  they  were 
characterized  by  vagueness. 

On  the  29th  of  April  a  decree  prolonging  the  extra 
session  of  the  General  Assembly  to  the  19th  of  May  was 
read  in  the  Senate  and  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In 
the  latter  branch  some  inquiries  were  made,  apparently 
to  embarrass  the  ministry.  Then,  on  the  taking  up  of 
the  report  in  the  contested  election  case  for  the  second 
district  of  Rio  Grande  do  ITorte,  a  very  disorderly  scene 
ensued,  and  the  presiding  officer  suspended  the  session  for 
fifteen  minutes.  It  was  reported  that  one  member  had 
assaulted  another  member.  There  was  some  jeering  and 
hissing  in  the  galleries,  and  subsequently  one  or  two  mem- 
bers were  jostled  by  a  crowd  in  the  street,  but  no  one 
received  any  bodily  injury.  However,  the  disorder  was 
made  the  ground  of  complaint  the  next  day  by  certain 
senators,  who  imputed  to  the  ministry  an  inability  to  main- 
tain public  order.  In  the  Senate  a  strong  attack  on  the 
Government  was  made  by  Senator  Brandao,  of  Pernam- 
buco,  wbo  moved  for  information  as  to  what  steps  had 
been  taken  to  guarantee  the  independence  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  public  order.  His  speech,  which  was 
frequently  interrupted,  was  replied  to,  in  the  absence,  from 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  325 

sickness,  of  tlie  prime  minister,  by  Senator  de  Sa,  Minis- 
ter of  the  Empire,  who  denied  any  responsibility  of  the 
Government  in  the  matter,  and  said  there  had  been  no 
disturbance  of  the  peace.  He  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  disorderly  persons  had  been  spectators  in  the 
Chamber,  where  they  could  only  enter  by  cards,  and  that 
these  cards  were  furnished  by  the  officers  of  the  Chamber. 
lie  explained  how  the  Government  were  the  chief  suffer- 
ers from  the  occurrence,  and  the  injustice  and  absurdity 
of  charging  them  with  complicity  in  it.  The  minister 
was  constantly  interrupted  by  opposition  senators,  but 
seems  to  have  retained  his  coolness  under  great  provoca- 
tion. 

On  the  2d  of  May  Prime-Minister  Dantas  appeared  in 
the  Senate,  and,  being  still  unwell,  made  some  remarks, 
seated  in  a  chair,  partly  in  reply  to  the  inquiry  of  Senator 
Junqueira,  as  to  whether  the  prolongation  of  the  extra 
session  had  been  made  after  consulting  the  Grand  Council 
of  State.  He  thanked  the  Conservative  Senator  de  Souza 
for  yielding  him  the  floor,  and  said  that,  while  his  health 
was  far  from  satisfactory,  his  sense  of  duty  and  what  he 
had  read  in  the  papers  about  the  previous  session  had 
brought  him  to  the  Senate.  He  repeated  Senator  de  Sa's 
assertion  that  no  blame  could  be  placed  on  the  Govern- 
ment as  to  the  disorderly  occurrences  at  the  Chamber. 
He  would  stand  or  fall  with  his  emancipation  project. 

The  opposition  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  however, 
seized  the  opportunity  to  renew  its  attack  on  the  ministry ; 
and,  on  Monday,  the  4th  of  May,  Mr.  Antonio  de  Siquei- 
ra,  of  Pemambuco,  moved  that  "  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, convinced  that  the  ministry  is  unable  to  guarantee 
the  public  order  and  security,  which  are  indispensable  for 
the  solution  of  the  slavery  question,  refuses  to  it  its  con- 

28 


326     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITIOIT  AND  PROSPECTS. 

fidence  "  whicli  was  carried  by  a  vote  of  fifty-two  to  fifty. 
Immediately  after  this  the  Cabinet  miinisters,  driving,  as 
usual,  each  in  a  close  carriage  with  two  mounted  guards, 
held  a  meeting  at  the  office  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture, 
and  then  the  prime  minister.  Senator  Dantas,  started  for 
Petropolis  to  confer  with  the  Emperor.  At  six  o'clock 
a  large  anti-slavery  mass-meeting  was  held  in  the  Lapa 
Square,  which,  after  listening  to  some  address,  went  in  an 
orderly  manner  to  the  Rua  Ouvidor  and  cheered  in  front 
of  the  offices  of  four  prominent  newspapers  which  sup- 
ported the  Government  plan  of  emancipation.  The 
"  Paiz  "  newspaper  the  next  morning  said :  "  It  rests  now 
with  the  Crown  to  pronounce  upon  the  new  conflict  wliich 
has  arisen  between  the  ministry  and  the  accidental  major- 
ity. Public  order  never  has  been  so  assured  as  now,  as 
can  easily  be  understood,  seeing  that  the  people  are  in 
favor  of  the  Government  and  of  its  political  programme." 

On  the  5th  of  May  the  Emperor  came  down  from  his 
summer  residence  to  Eio  with  Senator  Dantas,  and  the 
same  day  at  the  palace  consulted  with  some  of  the  leading 
statesmen,  and,  first  of  all,  with  Senator  Saraiva.  The 
result  was  that  Mr.  Saraiva  accepted  the  invitation  of  his 
Majesty  to  form  a  new  ministry,  which  was  organized  the 
6th  of  May. 

The  emancipation  project  of  the  new  ministry  was 
presented  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  May  11th,  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  which  consisted  in  a  large  increase  of 
the  emancipation  fund,  namely,  two  and  a  half  million 
dollars  annually  by  a  Government  five  per  cent  loan,  the 
interest  on  which  is  to  be  paid  by  a  five  per  cent  additional 
tax  on  imports ;  the  payment  to  masters  of  two  hundred 
milreis— say,  eighty  dollars — for  each  slave  aged  sixty 
years,  four  hundred  milreis  for  slaves  aged  fifty  years,  six 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  327 

hundred  for  those  aged  forty  years,  eiglit  hundred  for 
those  aged  thirty  years,  and  one  thousand  milreis  for  those 
under  twenty  years  of  age.  Slaves  upward  of  sixty-five 
are  declared  free,  without  pay  to  the  master.  All  freed- 
men  over  sixty  years  of  age  to  remain  with  their  masters, 
who  must  feed,  clothe,  and  care  for  them  in  sickness, 
availing  of  their  services,  provided  the  orphans'  court 
does  not  decide  that  the  said  f  reedmen  can  earn  their  own 
living.  Slaves  between  sixty  and  sixty-five  will  be  obliged 
to  work  for  three  years.  A  new  registry  of  slaves  to  be 
made,  but  not  including  those  over  sixty.  The  master 
will  pay  a  fee  of  one  milreis  for  the  registry  of  each  slave, 
and  those  not  registered  within  the  time  fixed  will  be  con- 
sidered free. 

The  prime  minister,  Mr.  Saraiva,  made  some  remarks 
on  the  subject  in  tlie  Senate  on  May  23d.  It  was  his 
conviction  that  no  country  could  transform  slave  into  free 
labor  without  an  outlay  by  the  state.  If  labor  could  be 
reorganized  on  ten,  fifty,  sixty,  or  eighty  plantations,  the 
slavery  question  was  finished.  The  project  was  a  large 
expansion  of  the  original  law.  From  the  time  he  had 
first  considered  the  question  he  had  said  that  such  a  project 
must  be  formulated  as  would  need  no  future  improve- 
ments ;  hence,  his  opposition  to  the  former  project,  which 
was  not  definite,  and  he  believed  the  present  would  finally 
settle  the  question.  Again,  on  June  1st,  in  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  he  said  that  if  it  was  objected  that  the  project 
did  not  propose  a  pecuniary  indemnification  for  slaves  of 
sixty-five  years,  it  must  be  remembered  that  many  plant- 
ers would  prefer  to  employ  these  old  slaves  as  teachers  of 
the  younger  ones,  rather  than  receive  one  or  two  hun- 
dred milreis  for  them.  He  thought  that  a  fixed  period 
was  the  worst  means  that  could  be  employed,  and  it  was 


328     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

for  the  purpose  of  defeating  anarchical  and  revolutionary 
principles  that  the  Government  organized  the  project  as 
it  was.  The  project  did  not  limit  itself  to  freeing  the 
slave ;  it  had  a  more  serious  aim,  that  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  labor ;  and,  unless  the  planters  are  furnished  with 
the  necessary  means,  there  could  be  no  transformation  of 
labor.  With  an  annual  discount  of  six  per  cent  on  the 
value  of  the  slave,  and  two  per  cent  death-rate,  he  esti- 
mated that  in  ten  years  slavery  would  be  extinct. 

The  project,  after  considerable  discussion  and  some 
amendments,  was  passed  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  on 
August  13th,  by  a  small  majority,  due  in  part  to  Con- 
servative votes ;  and  the  following  day  the  Saraiva  Cabi- 
net resigned,  and  the  Emperor,  after  consulting  the  Presi- 
dents of  the  Senate  and  Chamber,  decided,  on  August 
19th,  to  call  on  the  Conservatives  to  form  a  Government. 
Their  leader,  Senator  Baron  de  Cotegipe,  promptly  un- 
dertook the  task,  as  premier,  accepting  for  himseK  the 
portfoho  of  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  His  Cabinet 
supported  the  Saraiva  project,  and  it  passed  the  Senate 
and  became  a  law  on  September  28,  1885. 

On  June  1,  1886,  ex-Premier  Dantas  treated  the  Sen- 
ate to  a  surprise  by  introducing,  in  behalf  of  himself  and 
nine  others,  a  bill  for  the  unconditional  abolition  of  slavery 
at  the  expiration  of  five  years  from  its  adoption.  It  was 
referred  to  a  special  committee,  which  was  elected  by  the 
Senate  on  the  following  day,  and  composed  of  strongly 
pro-slavery  men,  among  whom  were  ISTunes  Gongalves  and 
Martinho  Campos.  In  five  days  the  committee  made  an 
adverse  report,  dechning  to  consider  emancipation  as  an 
abstract  question,  but  rejecting  the  project  for  its  lack  of 
opportuneness  and  its  effects  on  high  social  interests.  In 
their  view  the  Saraiva-Gotegipe  law  was  satisfying  the 


SLAVERY  AND  EMANCIPATION.  329 

aspirations  of  the  country.  According  to  the  official  re- 
port for  1886,  the  whole  number  of  slaves  liberated  by  the 
emancipation  fund  since  1871  was  24,165,  at  an  average 
price  of  $288  for  each  slave — being  less  than  2,000  liber- 
ations per  year.  According  to  official  returns,  the  number 
of  slaves  in  the  empire  on  June  30,  1885,  was  1,133,228  ; 
and  it  is  likely  that  Americans  will  drink  coffee  pro- 
duced by  slave-labor  for  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  century 
longer. 


OHAPTEE  XIX. 

THE  KELIGIOUS   OKDEES. 

The  fact  that  the  Pope  sided  with  Spain  against  the 
crown  of  Portugal  over  two  centuries  ago,  probably  has 
made  the  Catholics  of  the  latter  country  and  of  Brazil 
more  national  and  less  Romish,  in  church  matters,  than 
have  been  the  Catholics  of  some  other  countries.  The 
Jesuits,  who  had  been  especially  active  and  useful  in  civil- 
izing the  Indians  in  Brazil,  were  expelled  from  the  coun- 
try a  century  and  a  quarter  ago  for  having  influenced  the 
Indians  to  revolt  against  the  Government. 

In  its  proceedings  against  the  monasteries  Brazil  has 
been  slower  than  either  Italy,  Portugal,  or  Spain.  It  is 
only  lately  that  it  began  to  put  in  force  a  law  for  grad- 
ually winding  itp  the  monastic  institutions.  Ko  new 
members  can  be  received  into  these  orders,  but  existing 
members  remain  unmolested.  A  commission  under  the 
Government  was  appointed  to  ascertain  and  appraise  the 
revenue -yielding  property  of  the  different  monasteries, 
which  is  understood  to  be  large  ;  this  property  was  to  be 
sold  and  its  proceeds  invested  in  interest-bearing  securi- 
ties, and  out  of  it  the  surviving  members  of  the  orders 
were  to  be  supported  during  life,  after  which  the  funds 
would  revert  to  the  national  treasury.    This  action  by  the 


THE  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS.  33I 

legislative  and  executive  power  of  the  state  has  been 
hotly  denounced  by  the  Catholic  clergy  and  some  of  their 
political  friends  as  confiscation  and  robbery.  Sermons 
have  been  preached,  and  voluminous  articles  published  in 
the  newspapers,  denunciatory  alike  of  the  Emperor  and 
Government  for  permitting  the  law  to  be  carried  into 
execution.  The  result  has  been  that  the  law  seems  to  be 
rather  at  a  standstill. 

The  Franciscan  Convent  on  Sao  Antonio  Hill  is  an  an- 
tique massive  pile,  which  from  its  long  stretch  of  steps 
reminds  one  of  the  old  Roman  Capitol.  The  visit  which 
I  made  to  it  was  on  one  of  the  festival-days  of  the  order. 
I  was  ushered  into  the  reception-room  of  the  provincial, 
or  chief  of  the  convent,  where,  besides  three  or  four  gen- 
tlemen, who  appeared  to  be  making  a  social  visit,  were 
two  rather  distinguished  -  looking  men  dressed  in  long 
black  robes  tied  about  them  with  a  white  cord,  and  whom 
I  naturally  took  to  be  the  higher  officials  of  the  order. 
The  one  of  these,  who  took  the  leading  part  in  the  con- 
versation, and  who  impressed  me  at  once  by  his  dignified 
manner,  his  deep  fine  voice,  and  fluent  speech  as  an  ideal 
abbot,  such  as  Sir  Walter  Scott  describes,  I  supposed  was 
the  head  of  the  convent.  I  felt  a  gratified  astonishment 
in  meeting  such  a  character ;  but  I  was  destined  to  disap- 
pointment, for  I  learned  later  on  that  he  was  a  Rio  lawyer 
and  politician.  It  was  Dr.  Antonio  F.  Yianna,  a  leading 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  from  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
distinguished  as  a  debater,  and  who,  as  syndic  or  solicitor 
of  the  convent,  was  present  on  this  occasion  in  the  capacity 
of  a  lay  member,  wearing  the  regalia  of  the  order.  The 
conversation  gradually  led  to  the  character  of  Brazilian 
monasteries,  a  subject  on  which  I  wished  information 
from  the  monks  themselves.     Dr.  Yianna  launched  out 


332    BRAZIL:   ITS  CON"DITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

into  an  eloquent  historical  review  of  the  operations  of  the 
brotherhoods  in  Brazil,  beginning  over  two  centuries  back, 
and  touching  their  work  in  civilizing  the  Indians,  in  pro- 
moting education,  in  caring  for  the  needy,  and  withal 
touching  on  the  manner  in  which  they  had  been  oppressed. 
He  dwelt  with  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  there  had  never 
been  religious  persecution  in  Brazil.  From  him  and  Pro- 
vincial Costa  I  learned  that  this  convent  had  become  rich ; 
that  some  property  was  originally  granted  to  it  by  the  Gov- 
ernment ;  that  about  fifty  thousand  dollars  in  money  had 
been  annually  expended  by  it  in  recent  times  for  the  poor ; 
that  there  are  many  thousand  lay  members  of  the  order,  and 
that  a  large  hospital  for  their  benefit  is  maintained  by  the 
convent ;  that  there  are  now  only  three  monks  belonging 
to  this  convent,  and  only  about  twenty  monks  in  all  the 
twelve  convents  of  the  Franciscan  order  in  Brazil.  When 
the  convent  was  in  full  operation  the  ordinary  duties  of 
the  brothers,  who  were  all  educated  men,  were  to  admin- 
ister the  sacrament  to  the  dying,  solicit  alms,  and  visit  the 
sick  and  poor.  "  When  the  convents  took  charge  of  the 
poor,"  said  Dr.  Yianna,  "  we  had  no  beggars  among  us." 
''  Where  did  the  brothers  take  their  exercise  and  recre- 
ation ? "  "  Out  here  on  the  mountain  " — ^pointing  to  the 
adjacent  Sao  Antonio  Hill. 

They  took  me  to  see  the  churches,  of  which  there  are 
two,  having  much  ornamentation ;  also  the  vestries,  library, 
and  other  places  of  interest  about  the  convent.  The  li- 
brary is  in  a  separate  and  higher  building  than  the  others. 
There  were  a  couple  of  thousand  or  more  ponderous  vol- 
umes in  calf-gilt  binding,  the  most  of  them  being  works 
of  the  church  fathers  in  both  Latin  and  Greek,  in  oppo- 
site columns  on  the  same  page ;  and,  though  a  hundred 
years  old,  the  pages  of  several  that  I  opened  looked  as 


THE  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS.  333 

clear  and  fresh  as  if  they  had  just  come  from  the  press. 
There  did  not  appear  to  be  a  single  modern  book  in  all 
the  collection,  and  the  thought  struck  me  that  the  library 
was  symbolic  of  the  convent  as  an  institution  failing  to 
keep  up  with  the  times. 

In  a  niche  of  one  of  the  churches  there  was  pointed  out 
to  me  the  tomb  of  some  of  the  royal  princes  who  had  been 
buried  there  in  colonial  days.  As  we  were  walking  over 
the  stone-slab  pavement  of  one  of  the  lower  corridors 
opening  on  the  interior  court,  I  was  told  that  underneath 
was  the  former  burying-place  of  the  brothers.  The  ves- 
tries are  spacious  rooms,  with  marble  floors,  and  contain 
many  big  drawers  made  of  Brazil-wood  in  natural  col- 
ors, in  which  are  kept  the  priestly  vestments.  Some  of 
these,  very  rich  in  gold  embroidery,  were  taken  out  by 
Provincial  De  Costa  and  shown  me.  When  the  beautiful 
vase  of  solid  gold,  and  other  golden  vessels  used  in  cele- 
brating mass,  were  exhibited,  one  or  two  humorous  remarks 
were  dropped  at  the  expense  of  those  who  in  these  days 
are  trying  to  get  hold  of  the  convent's  effects. 

I  took  leave  of  both  these  gentlemen,  who  had  courte- 
ously spent  an  hour  or  two  in  showing  me  about  the  con- 
vent, and  in  explaining  its  history,  very  favorably  im- 
pressed by  their  frank  and  manly  character. 

The  Benedictine  Convent  of  Eio  de  Janeiro,  founded 
in  1590,  is  situated  in  the  busiest  corner  of  the  city,  on  a 
hill  about  a  hundred  feet  high,  close  to  and  overlooking 
the  harbor.  The  street,  on  which  are  the  Post-Office  and 
new  Merchants'  Exchange,  abuts  on  this  hill,  and  it  is  from 
that  street  that  the  convent  is  entered.  The  approach 
up  to  it  is  over  a  solid  and  ancient-looking  way,  partly  of 
steps  cut  from  long  and  whole  blocks  of  granite,  and  is 
partially  shaded  by  the  green  foliage  of  trees  through 


334:      BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

which,  as  I  passed  under  them,  shone  the  afternoon  sun 
of  a  perfect  summer  day. 

The  building  is  in  the  form  of  a  square  with  an  ample 
stone  paved  interior  court.  The  church  occupies  one 
whole  side.  The  upper  story  of  another  side  is  occupied 
by  the  large  school  which  the  convent  sustains.  The  cor- 
ridors are  long  and  of  good  width  and  paved  with  stone. 
At  two  comers  are  tile-paved  reception-rooms,  hung  with 
several  portraits,  and  having  windows  which  overlook  the 
island-studded  bay.  Immediately  below  the  convent  on 
the  north  side  are  the  Government's  iron  ship-yard  and 
machine-shops,  the  noise  from  which  would  be  almost 
sufficient  to  abolish  the  convent  without  other  proceed- 
ing. The  establishment  of  these  works  so  near  the  con- 
vent was  literally  a  flank  movement  against  it. 

My  visit  to  the  abbot  of  the  Benedictine  Convent  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  Bev.  Manoel  de  Santa  Catharina 
Furtado,  took  place  "at  liis  private  parlor  in  the  convent 
on  Saturday,  the  11th  of  October.  I  sent  in  my  card,  and, 
although  my  visit  was  unexpected,  I  was  soon  admitted 
and  received  by  him  in  a  cordial  manner.  The  abbot  is 
a  man,  I  should  say,  about  forty-five  years  of  age,  a  little 
over  five  feet  in  height,  inclined  to  be  fat,  complexion, 
hair,  and  eyes  dark,  an  open,  intelligent  countenance,  and 
animated  manner.  He  wore  a  long  tunic,  cape,  and  scap- 
ulary  of  black  serge,  also  a  standing  collar,  but  no  cover 
on  his  liead.  At  his  request  I  took  a  seat  on  the  cane- 
seat  sofa,  he  sitting  in  one  of  the  arm  cane-seat  chairs,  of 
which  two  rows  were  ranged  perpendicular  to  the  sofa. 
Though  in  a  very  old  building  the  room  was  modem  and 
furnished  like  almost  any  tidy  Rio  parlor.  On  a  marble- 
topped  center-table  and  on  some  cabinets  were  several 
branched  candlesticks  with  figured  glasses  to  surround  the 


THE  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS.  335 

candles,  and  one  or  two  stands  of  artificial  flowers.  There 
was  a  rug  in  front  of  the  sofa.  The  floor  was  made  of  nai*- 
row  cedar  boards  neatly  finished  in  natural  color.  Two 
windows  in  the  room  afforded  an  extensive  view  of  the 
port  and  shipping.  After  some  casual  remarks,  I  said, 
"  It  has  been  the  fashion  in  late  years  for  writers  of  books 
in  the  English  language  on  Brazil  to  speak  unfavorably 
of  Catholic  priests  and  monks." 

"  That,"  said  he,  "  was  because  they  did  not  take  the 
trouble  to  come  and  see  us  and  learn  the  truth  about  us. 
You  should  have  seen,"  he  continued,  "the  crowds  of 
people  who  came  up  here,  with  tears  running  down  their 
cheeks,  at  the  time  the  Government  had  in  view  the  ap- 
propriation of  the  convent's  property,  and  who  were 
afraid  they  would  be  deprived  of  the  donations  they  had 
been  accustomed  regularly  to  receive.  The  Government 
finally  arranged  that  these  charitable  contributions  might 
be  continued,  and  the  convent  now  pays  out  monthly  in 
charity  sums  varying  from  two  to  twenty-five  milreis 
(one  to  ten  dollars)  to  over  a  hundred  people,  say  in  all 
seven  hundred  dollars  a  month."  The  abbot  stepped  to 
his  adjoining  bedchamber  and  produced  a  large  blank- 
book  w^herein  he  showed  me  a  list  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-three  names  of  citizens — which,  of  course,  I  did 
not  think  it  my  place  to  read — with  the  monthly  allow- 
ance set  opposite  each  name.  The  convent  also  expends, 
as  he  informed  me,  eight  thousand  dollars  annually  in 
maintaining  a  free  primary  and  secondary  school  for  boys, 
in  the  latter  of  which  they  can  fit  for  the  higher  scientific 
and  professional  schools.  This  school  was  established  in 
1858,  by  a  brother  of  Mr.  Sariva,  the  Liberal  statesman, 
and  now  has  an  average  attendance  of  about  four  hundred 
pupils.     He  cited  the  fact  that  the  convent  had  produced 


336     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION"  AND  PROSPECTS. 

some  men  of  acknowledged  learning  and  usefulness,  nam- 
ino-  as  one  of  them  the  brother  or  friar  who  was  the  in- 
structor  of  the  Imperial  Princess — the  exemplary  wife 
and  mother  who  is  now  next  in  succession  to  the  throne. 
Another  was  the  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  College 
of  Dom  Pedro  II. 

In  the  course  of  his  rapid  observations  he  cited  other 
facts  that  would  tend  to  reflect  credit  on  the  brotherhood, 
but  which  I  do  not  recall.  IS"aturally  the  maintaining 
of  regular  public  worship  in  the  church  of  the  convent 
would  be  an  important  claim  to  consideration. 

"  The  income  from  the  property  of  the  convent,"  said 
the  abbot,  ''is  three  hundred  contos  (one  hundred  and 
twelve  thousand  dollars)  annually ;  but  the  Government 
levies  a  tax  on  this  of  twenty-two  per  cent.  The  income 
of  the  convent  in  1850  was  only  twenty-iive  thousand 
dollars." 

"When  the  convent  was  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
what  were  the  rules  for  admission  to  membership?"  I 
asked. 

"  In  former  times  candidates  were  admitted  not  young- 
er than  the  age  of  fifteen  years,  and  had  a  trial  of  half  a 
year,  during  which  they  did  not  leave  the  convent.  At 
the  end  of  that  time  they  could  make  their  profession  to 
become  one  of  the  brotherhood  or  they  could  leave.  This 
was  changed  in  1856  so  they  were  admitted  at  fifteen 
years  of  age  and  upward,  and  then  had  a  year's  trial,  dur- 
ing which  they  remained  constantly  at  the  convent,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  they  could  make  their  profession,  or 
they  could  go  on  and  finish  the  regular  six  years'  course  of 
study  required  in  all  cases,  and,  when  ready  to  be  or- 
dained, they  could  make  the  solemn  declaration  to  become 
a  member,  or  they  could  simply  become  a  priest  and  leave 


THE  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS.  337 

the  order  entirely.  Tlie  course  of  study  is  about  the  same 
as  at  Catholic  theological  seminaries.  Though  candidates 
were  usually  admitted  while  young,  the  convent  once  re- 
ceived a  man  at  the  age  of  forty  because  he  was  distin- 
guished. He  was  a  Frenchman,  and  favored  by  the  Em- 
peror, who  appointed  him  librarian.  No  pecuniary  quali- 
fications were  required  of  any  candidate,  but  it  was  neces- 
sary he  should  be  of  a  thoroughly  respectable  family. 
Practically  the  question  of  color  was  undoubtedly  re- 
garded, as  none  of  African  descent  have  been  admitted. 
No  one  could  be  admitted  without  a  knowledge  of  French, 
Latin,  geography,  and  history ;  he  must  have  had  about 
the  same  literary  training  required  for  admission  to  a 
theological  seminary." 

"  What  were  the  duties  of  the  monks  and  the  disci- 
pline they  were  subjected  to  i  Could  they  go  into  soci- 
ety ?     Could  they  dine  out  ? " 

"  There  was  no  regulation  to  prevent  their  going  into 
society  or  dining  out.  They  could  not,  however,  lodge 
out  of  the  convent,  but  were  required  to  be  present  every 
evening  at  eight  o'clock.  After  completing  the  six  years' 
course  of  study  required  at  every  convent,  a  brother,  if 
twenty-three  years  of  age,  but  not  younger,  could  be  or- 
dained and  exercise  the  office  of  priest.  Till  they  had 
finished  their  studies  their  duties  and  discipline  were  those 
of  students ;  afterward,  as  priests,  to  conduct  divine  wor- 
ship, preach,  teach,  and  care  for  the  poor — in  fact,  to  do 
any  service  a  priest  could  do.  If  a  brother  could  not 
preach,  he  could,  perhaps,  sing  and  assist  in  public  wor- 
ship. Formerly  the  convent  owned  plantations,  and  a 
brother  would  be  detailed  to  have  charge.  Thirteen  years 
ago  it  freed  about  a  thousand  slaves,  and  gave  some  land 
to  well-behaved  slaves.    The  collection  of  rents  is  through 


338     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

secular  agents  or  attorneys.  The  convent  has  enjoyed  a 
large  annual  revenue." 

"Who  controlled  the  spending  of  the  money?" 

"  The  abbot.  He  is  responsible  for  the  expenditure 
of  the  money.  It  is  for  him  to  determine  the  current 
expenses.  He  gives  a  written  report  of  the  money  he  has 
expended  every  three  years.  On  any  very  important 
matter  he  receives  the  advice  of  a  council  of  the  order. 

"  Our  order,"  continued  the  abbot,  "  is  quite  a  repub- 
lic. It  obtained  independence  from  Leo  XII  (Pope, 
1823-29),  since  which  we  have  our  congregation  in  our 
own  country,  and  change  our  ruler  or  general  every  three 
years.  There  are  now  ten  Benedictine  Convents  in  good 
order  in  Brazil.  The  principal  one  is  at  Bahia,  where  the 
general  resides,  but  this  is  the  richest  one.  In  1850  there 
were,  perhaps,  seventy-five  brothers  of  the  Benedictine 
Order  in  Brazil ;  now  there  are  only  twenty-five,  of  whom 
about  twelve  are  here.  Six  have  died  in  the  last  three 
years." 

"  I  understand  that,  owing  to  the  spirit  of  legislation 
in  recent  years,  a  stop  has  practically  been  put  to  any  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  monks,  but  I  suppose  they  will 
be  allowed  to  spend  the  rest  of  their  days  quietly  in  the 
convents  where  they  now  dwell  ? " 

"  We  do  not  know,"  said  the  abbot.  ''  We  live  in  ap- 
prehension. In  defending  their  interests  during  the  late 
controversy  with  the  Government,  two  orders  paid  sixty- 
six  contos  (twenty-six  thousand  dollars)  to  journals  and 
lawyers." 

In  answering  some  further  inquiries  of  mine  relative 
to  the  dress  of  the  brothers,  the  abbot  explained  the  mat- 
ter in  a  friendly  and  off-hand  manner.  He  let  me  exam- 
ine the  cloth  of  which  his  tunic  was  made,  and  which  he 


THE  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS.  339 

said  is  called  serge.  The  pleated  slip  worn  over  this,  and 
extending  down  over  the  stomach,  is  called  the  scapularj. 
He  went  into  his  adjoining  bedchamber  and  brought  out 
his  black  gown,  which  he  put  on.  It  was  a  loose  black 
robe  of  serge,  with  train,  and  he  told  me  it  was  such  as 
he  or  any  brother  wore  when  preaching,  and  that  thej 
were  also  buried  in  it.  He  put  on  his  gold  cross  and 
chain ;  also  bent  down  Ms  head  to  show  me  how  those  of 
his  order  had  their  heads  shaved.  The  part  shaved  is  in 
form  of  a  ring,  an  inch  or  more  wide  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  leaving  some  hair  in  the  center. 

At  the  conclusion  of  our  talk  I  expressed  to  the  abbot 
my  sincere  thanks  for  the  kind  manner  in  which  he  had 
given  me  so  much  information.  As  I  was  coming  away, 
he  took  me  into  the  choir  of  the  church  and  pointed  out 
several  things  of  interest.  He  also  invited  me  to  visit  the 
church  on  some  Sunday,  and  I  promised  to  do  so. 

"Do  not  come,  however,"  said  he,  "next  Sunday,  for 
I  shall  be  absent." 

I  shook  hands  with  him  very  heartily,  and,  as  I  de- 
scended the  old  stone  stairs,  I  thought  of  the  time  when 
Brother  Martin  Luther  himself  was  a  monk,  and  that, 
while  monasteries  seem  now  out  of  date,  probably  the 
brothers  are  somewhat  better  than  in  the  time  of  Luther, 
when  every  monk  had  "  two  cans  of  beer  and  a  quart  of 
wine  for  supper,  with  gingerbread,  to  make  him  take  to 
his  liquor  kindly." 

The  academical  course  of  study  which  a  theological 
student  takes  in  Brazil  before  he  can  be  ordained  as  a 
priest  of  the  Catholic  Church  occupies  twelve  years. 
Wlien  he  has  finished  this  course,  he  has  generally  reached 
the  age  of  twenty-four  years.  He  can  not,  anyhow,  be 
ordained  or  consecrated  as  a  priest  till  he  has  attained  that 


340     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

age.  Having  graduated  at  a  seminary,  and  being  of  the 
proper  age,  he  can  be  consecrated  as  a  priest  without  any 
other  examination.  As  soon  as  he  becomes  ordained,  he 
is  immediately  assigned  by  the  bishop  as  an  ordinary  or 
assistant  in  some  parish ;  and,  after  serving  in  that  capaci- 
ty four  or  five  years,  he  can  be  assigned  to  duty  as  a  full 
priest  in  charge  of  a  parish.  The  bishop,  however,  in  no 
case  appoints  for  a  longer  term  than  one  year.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  every  priest  must  ask  for  re- examination, 
and  to  have  his  mission  renewed.  The  salary  which  the 
Government  pays  each  priest  is  four  hundred  milreis — 
say  one  hundred  and  sixty  dollars — a  year.  The  parish 
he  serves  makes  up  the  balance,  according  to  its  means 
and  disposition.  Some  parishes  pay  about  one  thousand 
dollars;  others  pay  less.  In  addition  to  his  salary,  the 
priest  receives  some  remuneration  for  such  services  as  the 
celebration  of  marriages  and  the  like.  There  is  no  fixed 
fee  for  performing  the  rite  of  baptism  or  of  marriage,  but 
parties  requiring  either  service  give  according  to  their 
win  and  ability — for  a  baptism  usually  about  two  dollars, 
and  for  a  marriage  five  to  ten  dollars.  For  performing 
mass  there  is  a  fixed  fee  of  two  milreis — say  eighty  cents 
— ^but  probably  more  is  voluntarily  paid,  as  a  rule. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

PUBLIC   LANDS   AND   IMMIGEATION. 

The  only  wild  lands  that  are  surveyed,  and  that  are 
practically  open  to  settlement,  are  those  which  have  been 
set  apart  for  colonies  in  the  provinces  of  Espirito  Santo, 
Sao  Paiilo,  Parand,  Santa  Catharina,  and  Rio  Grande  do 
SuL.  The  areas  surveyed  in  each  of  these  provinces  do 
not  much  exceed  the  size  of  an  ordinary  county  in  the 
United  States.  Such  new  land,  adapted,  we  will  say,  for 
coffee-growing,  and  situated  in  the  province  of  Espirito 
Santo,  twenty-four  hours  by  steamship  from  the  port  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  in  the  neighborhood  of  German  and  Ital- 
ian colonies,  can  be  bought  of  the  Government  in  tracts 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  acres  at  three  hundred 
dollars,  being  at  the  rate  of  two  dollars  and  forty  cents  per 
acre.  Payment  may  be  made,  if  desired,  in  five  annual 
payments.  The  land  has  an  elevation  of  two  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea,  is  hilly,  and  covered  with  woods.  A 
good  part  of  the  local  transportation  would  be  on  mule- 
back  or  by  boat.  Though  the  manner  of  life  is  attended 
with  the  usual  drawbacks  of  new  settlements,  the  colonies, 
as  a  rule,  enjoy  good  health,  and  are  prospering  finan- 
cially. 

There  are  extensive  areas  in  the  far  interior  which,  on 
the  maps,  purport  to  be  occupied  by  Indian  tribes,  and 


342     BRAZIL:   ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

which  in  most  cases  it  is  safe  to  conclude  are  not  private 
lands.  During  three  centuries  the  Crown  has  been  mak- 
ing grants  of  land  to  various  parties,  the  records  of  which 
do  not  appear  to  exist  in  any  accessible  form,  if  they  exist 
at  all.  A.  man  might  expend  weeks  in  exploring  the  wild 
lands,  and,  if  he  should  then  find  a  tract  he  wished  to  pur- 
chase, he  would  not  be  sure  of  a  clear  title.  If  he  resolved 
to  run  his  risk  and  buy  of  the  Government,  his  first  pro- 
ceeding would  be  to  formally  request,  in  writing,  the 
president  of  the  province  in  which  the  land  was  situated 
to  cause  the  tract  to  be  surveyed.  The  president  of  the 
province  would  designate  a  surveyor  to  make  the  survey 
and  report  upon  the  land,  after  which  the  Government 
would  fix  the  price  and  conditions  for  its  sale.  If  a  sale 
should  be  effected,  the  purchaser  would  take  the  land 
subject  to  the  claims  of  other  individuals,  which,  if  any 
Avere  preferred,  would,  unless  amicably  adjusted,  have  to 
be  determined  by  expensive  and  dilatory  proceedings  be- 
fore a  judicial  tribunal. 

The  wealth  and  future  greatness  of  Brazil  lie  in  the 
fertility  of  her  soil.  Admitting  that  much  the  greater 
part  of  her  ten'itory  is  waste  land,  yet  the  area  that  is 
susceptible  of  cultivation  is  immense,  forming  a  resource 
which  deserves  to  be  husbanded  in  the  wisest  manner ; 
but  it  will  ncFcr  attract  enterprise  till  there  is  more  cer- 
tainty about  titles.  Even  if  a  commencement  of  the  work 
should  be  made  to-day,  the  titles  would  not  all  be  cleared 
up  in  fifty  years.  It  is  all  the  more  important,  therefore, 
that  a  beginning  should  soon  be  made.  There  should  be 
established  in  each  province  a  competent  commission  to 
settle  land-titles,  the  whole  acting  under  a  central  or  gen- 
eral land-office.  A  great  part  of  the  uncultivated  land  is 
held,  not  by  the  state,  but  by  individuals,  and  in  tracts 


PUBLIC  LANDS  AND  IMMIGRATIOiT.  343 

large  enough  often  to  make  good-sized  counties.  It  is  not 
taxed ;  and,  having  been  obtained  at  a  small  price,  the 
proprietors  hold  on  to  it  year  after  year  for  speculation, 
or  to  gratify  their  vanity. 

The  Brazilians  do  not  appear  to  realize  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  offer  ownership  of  land  as  an  inducement  to  immi- 
grants. In  this,  I  think,  they  are  greatly  in  error.  There 
is  nothing  in  Europe  that  is  so  much  prized  as  land.  To 
own  there  even  a  few  acres,  and  especially  a  hundred 
acres  or  more,  carries  with  itself  a  certain  dignity  and 
social  rank. 

Up  to  this  hour  the  Brazilian  planters  seem  to  expect 
to  get  European  and  island  laborers  by  contract,  to  work 
on  shares  or  for  wages,  and  to  live  like  tenants  or  laborers, 
without  the  expectation  of  an  acre  in  their  own  right. 
This  seems  the  more  surprising  in  view  of  the  expected 
labor  crisis  arising  from  the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery. 

Official  returns  of  the  arrival  of  third-class  passengers 
— the  most  of  whom  were  assumed  to  have  been  immi- 
grants— at  the  port  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  show  the  number 
to  have  been  25,845  in  1882,  26,789  in  1883,  17,999  in 
1884,  and  22,727  in  1885.  A  great  majority  of  the  im- 
migrants are  habitually  from  Portugal  and  Italy. 

A  scheme  was  projected  in  1884  for  introducing  Chi- 
nese laborers  for  contract  work  on  plantations,  but  it  met 
with  signal  failure.  A  committee  of  Chinese  subjects 
visited  Brazil  to  see  for  themselves  how  the  plan  would 
work,  but  decidod  and  reported  against  it  for  its  lack  of 
the  element  of  freedom.  They  could  not,  they  said,  be  a 
party  to  anything  but  free  immigration.  In  recent  years 
the  River  Plate  countries  have  been  receiving  a  much 
larger  share  of  immigrants  than  Brazil.  For  example, 
while  from  1857  to  1862  Brazil  received  92,467  immi- 


3M     BRAZIL:  ITS  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 

grants  and  the  Argentine  Republic  33,020,  the  situation 
was  altered  in  the  period  from  1878  to  1882,  during  which 
the  Argentine  Republic  received  176,385,  and  Brazil  only 
92,620.  And  yet,  it  is  said,  that  during  the  five  years  of 
1874  to  1879  the  state  expended  the  immense  sum  of 
$13,000,000  to  promote  immigration  and  support  immi- 
grants. 

On  the  interior  highlands,  especially  in  the  more  south- 
ern provinces,  where  the  climate  is  salnbrions,  agriculture 
can  be  followed  with  profit  and  pleasure ;  and  it  only  re- 
quires the  adoption  of  proper  measures  to  secure  for  Bra- 
zil a  very  great  increase  of  her  immigration.  The  Gov- 
ernment appears  to  desire  immigration.  It  has  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  a  Bureau  of  Colonization  and  of  Immigration,  with 
a  director-general,  assisted  by  several  clerks.  It  has  pub- 
lished documents,  accompanied  with  fine  maps,  in  respect 
of  as  many  as  five  different  provinces,  with  descriptions 
of  their  geography  and  resources,  in  the  Portuguese, 
French,  German,  and  Italian  languages.  Individuals,  and 
especially  large  parties,  wishing  to  emigrate  to  Brazil 
would  do  well  to  address  themselves  to  that  office ;  but 
the  ground  ought  to  be  looked  over  in  person  or  by  a 
competent  and  reliable  agent,  before  fully  deciding  to 
emigrate.  While  a  family  alone,  or  even  a  group  of  fami- 
lies, with  slender  means,  would  probably  find  themselves 
struggling  with  unexpected  difficulties  and  discourage- 
ments, a  considerable  colony  would,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
well  organized  and  prepared,  and  fully  resolved  on  a  per- 
manent settlement,  probably  meet  with  success.  It  may 
be  taken  for  granted  that  the  Brazilian  Government  would 
live  up  to  its  engagements  with  a  colony  or  party  of  im- 
migrants ;  and,  to  show  its  liberality,  I  may  mention  that, 
though  the  state  church  is  Catholic,  the  Goveramcnt  has 


PUBLIC  LANDS  AND  IMMIGRATION.  345 

sometimes  aided  in  the  building  of  religions  meeting- 
houses for  Protestant  German  colonies.  As  the  ministries 
are  frequently  changed,  however,  to  meet  the  shifting 
majorities  of  the  legislature,  it  is  of  the  most  absolute  im- 
portance that  any  set  of  immigrants  or  colonists  who 
purpose  coming  to  Brazil,  on  any  understanding  with  the 
Government,  should  have  their  contract  most  explicitly 
written,  and  signed  by  the  proper  officer  before  they  start, 
or  make  any  sacrifice  with  a  view  to  starting.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  war  probably  three  thousand  Ameri- 
cans emigrated  from  the  Southern  States  to  Brazil,  of 
whom  many  were  experienced  agriculturists,  and  possessed 
means ;  but  four  fifths  of  them  have  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  many  others  look  forward  to  doing  the  same. 
Why  ?  I^ot  because  Brazil  is  a  bad  country,  but  because 
they  prefer  the  United  States. 


IITDEX. 


Abbots,  conversations  witb,  831-339. 
Aberdeen,  Lord,  quoted  on  the  slave- 
trade,  309. 
Abreu,  Casimiro  Jose,  234. 
Academical  course  in  theology,  339. 
Administration,  local,  185-193. 

national,  194-215,  345. 
Agassiz,   Mrs.,   opinion  of  climate, 

112. 
tour  of  Prof,  and  Mrs.,  in  Amazon 

Valley,  276-288. 
Agriculture,  241-261,  344. 
Albuquerque,  Deputy,  208. 
Alencar,  J.  M.,  217. 
Alligator-hunt,  270. 
Alves,  A.  C,  235. 
Amazon,  valley  of,  262-293. 

explorations  in,  by  Prof.  Agassiz, 

276. 
Americans   should    know   races   on 

their  own  continent,  3. 
settled  in  Brazil,   159-162;    267, 

288-292. 
Amusements.     See  Diversions. 
Anaconda  mentioned,  64,  302. 
Andrade,  Sr.,  hospitality  of,  68-73. 
Anecdotes  of  beasts  of  prey,  295- 

307. 
Apples,  importation  of,  261. 


Architecture  of  Ptio,  24-26. 
Army,  214. 

Assis,  Machado  de,  236. 
Authors,  Brazilian,  217-236. 
Avila,  Senator,  on  climate,  113. 

Balance  of  trade,  124. 

Ball  in  the  interior,  73. 
at  Manaos,  280. 

Barbaccna  visited,  1 26. 

Barbara,  S.,   American  settlers  at, 
159. 

Barker,  Mr.,  mentioned,  145. 

Bates,  Mr.,  quoted,  300. 

Beasts  of  prey,  294-307. 

Beers,  Captain,  remarks  on  the  trip 
to  Brazil,  11. 

Begging  in  the  street,  43. 

Bigg-Wither,  Mr.,  quoted,  68,  303. 

Birds,  numerous  varieties  in  Amazon 
Valley,  275. 

Bismarck,  steamship,  voyage  on,  10. 

Blind  Asylum,  48. 

Boa,  the,  302. 

Books,  few  which  girls  can  read,  67. 

Brandao,  Senator,  824. 

Brazil,  situation,  resources,  and  cli- 
mate, 93-115. 
chief  products  of,  101. 


348 


INDEX. 


Brazil,  relations  of,  with  the  United 
States,  116-125. 
an  agricultural  country,  241. 
\^  Brazilians,  traits  of,  35,  40. 

sentiments    toward    the    United 
States,  117. 
Brazil-nuts,  292. 
British  sentiment   on  slavery,  308, 

321. 
Buckle,  his  remarks  on  Brazil,  94. 
Buildings,  style  of,  at  Rio,  25. 
Burdens,  borne  on  the  head,  36. 
Burton,  Captain,  quoted,  76,  99. 
Butterflies,  88. 

Cabinets,  changes  in,  199. 

Caldas,  S.,  225. 

Campinas,  noticed,  162,  163. 

Campo,  96. 

Canary  Islands,  call  at,  8. 

Cane,  the  crop,  249. 

Cantos  of  Bias,  232. 

Capital    required    in    the    Amazon 

Valley,  293. 
Caramuru,  poem,  228. 
Carlos,  Antonio,  224. 
Carlos,  F.  de  Sao,  225. 
Carnival  described,  41. 
Carson's  Hotel,  noticed,  14. 
Carvalho,  Leoncio  de,  172. 
Casa  dos  Expostos,  43. 
Casino  hall,  43. 
Catharina,  Santa,  77. 
Catholic  religion,  54. 
Cattle,  breed  of,  158,  257. 
Celso,  Senator,  207. 
Chamberlain,  Rev.,  mentioned,  147, 

163. 
Children,  respect  for  parents,  55. 
Chinese  labor,  343. 
Christie,  Mr.,  quoted,  308. 


Churches,  62,  53. 
Climate,  109-115,  131. 
Cobden,  Richard,  3. 
Coffee,  cheapness  of  its  transporta- 
tion, 119. 

cultivation  of,  242-248. 

plantations,  beauty  of,  134. 

produced  by  slave-labor,  829. 
CoUegio  Piracicabano,  visited,  166. 
Colonia  Thereza,  68,  78. 
Colonies,  German  and  other,  77. 
Colonization,  Bureau  of,  344. 
Commerce,  102,  121. 
Communication  between  the  United 

States  and  Brazil,  120. 
Comsett,  Consul,  quoted,  77. 
Consular  office,  location  at  Rio,  4. 
Consumption,  prevalence  of,  51. 
Convents,  Benedictine  and  Francis- 
can, visited,  331-339. 
Corcovado  Mountain,  view  from,  23. 
Corn,  Indian,  its  cultivation,  248. 
Corpus  Christi,  55. 
Correa,  R.,  236. 
Correia,  Senator,  206. 
Costa,  de,  Provincial,  332. 
Cotigipe,  Senator,  196. 
Cotton,  production  of,  251. 
Count  d'Eu,  mentioned,  172. 
Country  life,  153-162. 
Cross,  Dr.  J.,  mentioned,  144. 
Curitiba,  sketch  of,  67. 

Dantas,  Senator,  197. 

his  bill  for  unconditional  abolition, 
321. 

speech  he  did  not  make,  321. 
Death  the  real  emancipator,  321. 
Debates  in  legislative  bodies,  194. 
Debt,  public,  103. 
Dentists,  69. 


INDEX. 


349 


Deputies,  Cliambcr  of,  194-213. 

D'Eu,  Count,  172,  215. 

Dias,  Gon9alvcs,  sketch  of,  230, 

Diplomatic  and  consular  oflScers, 
what  they  can  do,  124,  125. 

Diversions,  41,  65,  255. 

Dom  Tedro  II,  sketch  of,  82-S6. 

Drainage  of  Rio  by  the  English  com- 
pany, 29, 

Driveways  for  pleasure,  lack  of,  31. 

Durao,  Kita,  228, 

Dutch,  the,  in  Brazil,  249, 

Earnings  of  the  slave,  322. 

Earthenware,  20. 

Earthquakes,  need  of,  in  Amazon 

Valley,  276. 
Education,  system  of,  171-184. 
Elevation  of  the  country,  93, 
Emancipation,  progress  of,  310-329. 
Emperor  of  Brazil,  notice  of,  82-88. 

favors  emancipation,  310. 

his  part  in  politics,  200-211. 
England  helps  expel  the  Dutch  from 

Brazil,  249. 
Exports,  102. 

Facchenctti,  Prot.,  296. 

Falls  of  Paulo  Affonso,  99. 

Famine  in  Ccara,  65. 

Finances,  103,  105. 

Fish,  kinds  in  Rio  market,  18, 

Floresta,  88. 

Forests,  conversion  of,   into    fields, 

274. 
Foundling  Hospital,  43-47, 
France  helps  expel  the  Dutch  from 

Brazil,  249. 
Francisco,  S2o,  Valley,  98,  99. 
Fruit-culture,  258-261. 
Furniture  in  Rio  houses,  16. 

eo 


Furtardo,  the  abbot,  334. 

Garvca,  Mount,  91. 
Gate-pillars  of  sculptured  granite,  27. 
German  colonists,  79,  345. 
Government,  local,  185-193. 
national    or   parliamentary,    194- 
215. 
Guarany,  Alcncar's,  220. 
Guimaracs,  B.,  217,  221. 
GuimarScs,  L.,  Jr.,  236, 

Habits  of  the  people,  33,  38,  55. 

Hammock,  use  of,  282. 

Hammond,  W,  J.,  observations  of, 

96,  97. 
Harbor  of  Rio,  126. 
Hay,  the  crop,  251. 
Hayes,  Mrs.  J.,  53. 
Highlands  of  the  Amazon,  292. 

interior,  344. 
Historians,  227. 
Hoc,  use  of,  241. 
Horseback-rides,    delightful,   at  Ti- 

juca,  88. 
Housekeeping,  beginning,  at  Rio,  15- 

21. 
Houses  at  Rio,  15. 
Houston,  Mr.,  missionary,  53. 
Humor,  56,  60,  195,  238. 
Hunting-park  of  the  Emperor,  23. 

Ibicaba,  visit  to  plantation  of,  150- 

158. 
Immigrants,  79,  288,  341-345. 
Immigration,  341-345. 
Imports,  102. 
Indians,  Tupay,  bravery  of,  148. 

as  crews,  264. 

graceful  forms  of,  274. 

tidiness,  283. 


350 


INDEX. 


Industries,    122    (see  Agriculture, 

etc.). 
Inheritance,  62. 
Instruction,  public,  171-184. 
Interior,  life  in  the,  68-77,  79. 

a  trip  into,  123. 
Iracema,  poem  of,  218-220. 
Ivahy,  valley  of,  68. 

Jaguar,  the  Brazilian,  294-299. 
Jaguaribe,  Senator,  318. 
Journalists,  distinguished,  227. 
Judges,  want  of  independence,  316. 

Kennedy,  Rev.  J.  L.,  53. 
Koger,  Rev.  J.  W.,  169. 
Kyle,  Rev.,  53. 

Labor,  free,  wages  of,  19,  145,  254. 

severe,  of  slaves,  315. 
^->^    transformation  of  slave,  into  free, 
327,  343. 
Laboring  class,  38-40. 
Ladies,  Brazilian,  33,  34. 
Lafayette,  Senator,  198. 
Land,  abundance  of,  64. 

character  of,  between  Santos  and 
Sao  Paulo,  141. 

price  of,  250. 

public,  341-345. 

how  obtained,  342. 
Lane,  Rev.,  164. 
Legal  profession,  58. 
Liberty  of  the  press,  237. 
Library  of  mechanics,  145. 
Lidgerwood,  Mr.,  his  service  to  Bra- 
zil, 246. 
Life,  in  cities,  22-43 

in  the  country,  64,  66,  79. 

in  the  Amazon  Valley,  265-293. 
Lisbon,  embarkation  at,  7. 


Lisbon,  voyage  from,  to  Rio,  9. 
Literature,  Brazilian,  216-240. 
Local  administration,  185-193. 
Lotteries,  37. 
Lyceu  dc  Artcs,  183. 

Macedo,  J.  M.,  217,  222. 
Magelhaes,  General,  142. 
Magelhaes,  D.  J.  G.,  233. 
Mandioca,  production  of,  253. 
Manners  of  the  people,  41,  52-81. 
Manufactures,  122,  168. 
Marcy,  W.  L.,  quoted,  124. 
Marriage,  celebration  of,  61,  62,  67. 
Martins,  Senator,  quoted,  114,  195. 
Matto-Grosso,  80,  95. 
Medical  schools,  60. 
Mines,  102. 
Ministers,  Cabinet,  200. 

frequently  changed,  345. 
Misericordia  Hospital,  visit  to,  47. 
Missionaries,  Protestant,  53. 
Moema  episode,  230. 
Monasteries,  330-339. 
Money  of  Brazil,  19,  103. 
Monks,  330-339. 
Monte- Alverne,  225. 
Morals  in  the  Amazon  Valley,  266. 
Moreninha,  Macedo' s  novel,  223. 
Motta,  Da,  Senator,  318. 

Navigation  of  the  Amazon,  262-265. 
Newspapers,  237. 

Novel,  the,  not  of  high  moral  tone,  67. 
Nut-pickers,  292. 

Oliveira,  Alberto,  236. 
On9a,  anecdotes  of,  294-299. 
Oranges,  258-261. 

Oratory  in  legislative   bodies,  196- 
197. 


INDEX. 


351 


Oratory  in  the  pulpit,  225,  226. 
Osborn,  T.  A.,  mentioned,  84. 
Ottoni,  Senator,  208. 

his   observations   on  slavery  and 
emancipation,  313-320. 

Palm-trees,  striking  appearance  of, 

26. 
Para,  city  of,  262,  268. 
Paraguay,    cost    of    demonstration 

against,  125. 
Parana,  province  of,  68. 
Parks,  2S,  87,  143. 
Parliamentary     government,     194- 

215. 
Parties,  political,  195-214. 
Pedra-Bonita,  ascent  of,  88. 
Pedro,  Dom,  II,  82-88. 
Penedo,  Deputy,  320. 
Pensions,  215. 
Periodical  literature,  236. 
Pernambuco,  delightful   climate  of, 

111. 
Petropolis,  mountain  resort,  128-180. 
Physicians,  59. 
Piracicaba,  notice  of,  167. 
Plantations  visited,  137-179. 
Poets,  226-236. 
Politics,  194-214. 
Portuguese  element,  38. 

language,  216. 
Presbyterian  church  at  Sao  Paulo, 

147. 
Presidents  of  provinces,  187. 
Priests,  Catholic,  54. 

academical  course  of,  339. 
Princess  Imperial  visits  Sao  Paulo, 

144. 
Protestant  worship,  52,  79. 
Pulpit  orators,  225. 
Punch,  238. 


jRaces,  mixture  of,  287. 
Railways,  30,  105,  106,  135. 
Kansom,  Rev.  J.  J.,  53. 
Reciprocity,  121. 
Relations  of  the  United  States  with 

Brazil,  116. 
Religious  liberty,  52,  67. 

orders,  330-339. 
Revenue,  103. 

Revolutions  in  South  America,  3. 
Rice,  the  crop,  253. 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  arrival  at,  8. 

living  at,  18. 

sketch  of  the  city  and  its  people, 
22-51. 
Rio  Negro,  explorations  on,  273,  274. 
River  Plate  countries,  108. 
Roads,  lack  of,  64. 
Rodrigues,  Deputy,  200. 
Rua  do  Ouvidor,  frequented  street, 

32. 
Rubber  industry,  103,  293. 

Sailing-vessels,   route   of,  from  the 

United  States  to  Brazil,  12. 
Sampaio,  F.,  225. 
S2o  Paulo  visited,  142-150. 
Saraiva,  Senator,  198,  327. 
Scenery,  mountain,  91. 
School,  young  ladies',  53. 
Schools,  public,  171-184,  290. 
Seamen,  treatment  of  sick,  50. 
Sea-View  Cottage,  88. 
Senate,  196. 

Senators,  several  mentioned,  195-208. 
Serpents,  299-307. 
Servants,  Portuguese,  19. 
Shalders,  Mr.,  217. 
Seminarista,  story  of,  221. 
Sinimbu,  Senator,  197. 
Slavery  and  the  slave-trade,  308-329. 


352 


INDEX. 


^/Slaves,    appearance    of    plantation, 

155,  156. 
Smith,  Dr.  Herbert  H.,  quoted,  288. 
Society,  223. 

in  the  Amazon  Valley,  279,  286. 
Soil  of  Brazil,  94,  97. 
South  America,  impressions  about,  in 

the  United  States,  3. 
Southern,  Mr.  Henry,  quoted,  309. 
Spirits,  sale  of,  40. 
Steamship  Company,  United  States 

and  Brazil  Mail,  stopping-places,  ! 

12. 
Stewart,  Dr.  J.  A.,  51. 
Stock-raising,  99,  113,  256-258. 
Street  railways  and  cars,  30. 
Subsistence,  common,  253. 
Sugar,  production  of,  249. 
Sunday,  observance  of,  52,  67. 
Surface  of  Brazil,  93,  104,  241. 

Table  of  the  planter,  154. 
Tarboux,  Rev.,  169. 
Taste,  lack  of,  64. 

Thallenhorst,  Captain,  mentioned,  7. 
Thought,  that  of  Brazil,  35. 
Tijuca,  mountain  suburb,  87-92. 
Tobacco,  production  of,  254. 
Trade  with  Brazil,  102,  121-124. 
Transportation,  rates   of,  106,   119, 

146. 
Travel  on  the  Amazon,  277. 
Trees,  beautiful  flowering,  27. 
Tymbiras,  poem  of,  232. 


United  States,  relations  of,  with  Bra- 
zil, 116. 
trade  of,  with  Brazil,  102. 
a  peace-loving  country,  323. 

Varella,  R,  236. 

"Venders,  street,  37. 

Vergueiro,  Sr.,  his  coffee-plantation 

visited,  150-158. 
Vianna,  Deputy,  195,  331. 
Voyage,  New  York  to  Rio,  7,  11-13. 

Lisbon  to  Rio,  8-10. 

Rio  to  Santos,  137. 

Wages  of  servants,  19. 

of  mechanics,  145. 

agricultural,  254. 
Wallace,  Alfred  R.,  observations  on 

the  Amazon  Valley,  266-276. 
Water-bottle,  in  common  use,  20. 
Water-supply  at  Rio,  48. 
Watts,    Miss,    her    school    visited, 

166. 
Weights  and  measures,  19. 
Wheat  formerly  cultivated,  114. 
Wheel  of  Foundling  Hospital,  43. 
AVinter,  111. 
Women,  seclusion  of,  70-71. 

Yellow  fever,  first  impressions  about 
15. 

treatment,  50. 

could  be  exterminated,  112. 
Young,  Rev.  F.,  mentioned,  53. 


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New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street 


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FINANCIAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
FROM  1774  TO  1789,  EMBRACING  THE  PERIOD  OF 
THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION.  New  edition,  thoroughly  re- 
vised. By  Albert  S.  Bolles,  Professor  in  the  Wharton  School  of 
Finance,  University  of  Pennsylvania;  Editor  of  "The  Banker's 
Magazine."     8vo.    Cloth,  $2.50. 

FINANCIAL     HISTORY    OF     THE     UNITED     STATES. 

COMPRISING  THE  PERIOD  FROM  1789  TO  18G0.  By  Albert 
S.  BoLLES,     8vo.     Cloth,  $3.50. 

FINANCIAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
FROM  1861  TO  1885.  By  Albert  S.  Bolles.  8vo.  Cloth, 
$3.50. 

WORKS  OF  J.  C.  CALHOUN.  Vol.  I.  On  Government.  Vol. 
II.  Reports  and  Letters.  Vols.  Ill  and  IV.  Speeches.  Vols.  V  and 
VL  Reports  and  Letters.    6  vols.    8vo.   Cloth,  $15.00;  sheep,  $18.00. 

Mr.  Calhoim'd  life  and  ppeeches  form  a  Fubetantive  part  of  American  history 
for  near  half  a  century.  He  was  always  in  public  life,  and  stamped  the  Impress 
of  bis  genius  on  every  great  public  measure,  either  as  debater  or  minister. 

THIRTY  YEARS'  VIEW;  OR,  A  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORK- 
ING OF  THE  A5IERICAN  GOVERNMENT  FOR  THIRTY 
YEARS,  FROM  1820  TO  1850.  By  Thomas  H.  Benton.  New 
edition,  revised,  with  Copious  Index.  Two  very  large  volumes,  8vo. 
Cloth,  $G.OO;  sheep,  $8.00. 

MILITARY  HISTORY   OF   ULYSSES   S.   GRANT,  FROM 

APRIL,  1861,  TO  APRIL,  1865.  By  General  Adam  Badeau,  Aide- 
de-Camp  to  the  General-in-Chief.  Popular  edition.  In  3  volumes. 
Bvo.     Cloth,  $6.00. 

"  General  Badeau  has  had  exceptional  advantages  in  the  preparation  of  this 
valuable  work.  Before  the  war  he  was  a  journalist  of  known  skill  and  acquire- 
ments. While  in  the  war,  a  member  of  General  Grant's  staff,  he  was  military 
secretary,  and  accompanied  the  commander  of  the  army  from  the  close  of  the 
Vicksbnru  campaign  till  the  surrender  of  Lee.  lie  has  had  access  to  the  records 
of  the  War  Department,  both  Confederate  and  Federal,  and  it  is  known  that  the 
sheets  of  his  work  were  read  in  proof  by  General  Grant,  General  Sherman,  Gen- 
eral Sheridan,  and  other  officers.  This  military  history,  therefore,  comes  to  ue 
with  every  a;<8iirancc  of  accuracy,  and  it  may  be  accepted  as  Grant's  own  presen- 
tation of  the  claims  upon  which  his  military  renown  will  rest.  .  .  .  A  work 
whldi  toill  long  be  accepted  as  a  classic  history  of  the  greatest  war  of  modem 
times:''— New  York  Herald. 

The  Same.  With  a  Steel  Portrait  and  33  Maps.  Complete  in  3  vols. 
8vo.  Cloth,  $12.00;  sheep,  $15.00;  half  turkey,  $20.00.  Sold 
by  subscription  only. 

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THE  WAR  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND 
MEXICO.  By  Geouge  Wilkins  Kendall.  Illustrated.  Embrac- 
ing eleven  folio  pictorial  drawings  (in  colors)  of  the  principal  con- 
flicts, by  Carl  Nebel.  With  a  description  of  each  battle.  Folio. 
Ualf  morocco,  §40.00. 

RISE  AND  FALL  OF  THE  CONFEDERATE  GOVERN- 
MENT. By  Jefferson  Davis.  Complete  in  2  vols.  8vo.  Illus- 
trated with  Portraits  of  Mr.  Davis,  his  Cabinet,  Aides,  and  Generals, 
and  with  Maps  and  Plans.  Price,  per  volume,  in  cloth,  $5.00; 
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which  they  are  set  forth,  and  the  value  which  it  possesses  as  the  authentic  com- 
mentary on  the  most  momentous  episode  in  the  history  of  the  United  State.^ 
since  their  independence  was  acknowledged  and  their  Constitution  was  framed." 
—London  Athenceum. 

INCIDENTS   AND  ANECDOTES  OF  THE   CIVIL  WAR. 

By  Admiral  David  D.  Porter.     One  vol.     8vo.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

Admiral  Porter's  anecdotical  reminiscences  of  the  war  are  written  in  a 
graphic  and  animated  style.  They  are  always  dramatic,  often  amusing,  and  give 
many  unfamiliar  inside  views  of  events  in  that  trying  period.  The  contents  re- 
late to  Event's  at  Pensacola,  the  Attack  on  New  Orleau?,  Ericsson  and  the  Mon- 
itor, Ascending  the  Mississ»ippi,  tlie  Siege  of  Vicksburg,  General  Grant  at  Vicks- 
burg.  Admiral  Farragur,  the  Yazoo  Pass  Expedition,  General  Sherman,  the  Red 
River  Exneditiori,  Naval  Battle  at  Grand  Gulf,  General  Butler  in  New  Orleans, 
Visit  of  President  Lincohi  to  Richmond,  and  various  other  events  of  the  war. 

Some  of  the  a:lmirars  experiences  wore  certainly  remarkable,  and  all  are  told 
with  groat  erusto  and  spirit,.  Nothing  more  stirring  and  readable  has  been  pro- 
duced iu  the  literature  of  the  war. 

NARRATIVE  OF  MILITARY  OPERATIONS  DIRECTED, 
DUPJNG  THE  LATE  WAR  BETWEEN  THE  STATES,  BY 
JOSEPH  E.  JOHNSTON,  GENERAL  C.  S.  A.  Illustrated  with 
Steel  Plates  and  Maps.  8vo.  Cloth,  $5.00;  sheep,  $3.00;  half 
morocco,  $7.50. 

PRESIDENTIAL  COUNTS.  A  Complete  Official  Record  of  the 
Proceedings  of  Congress  at  the  Counting  of  the  Electoral  Votes  in 
all  the  Elections  of  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States.     8vo.     Cloth,  $3.50. 


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D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  NAVY  DURING  THE 
GREAT  REBELLION.  By  Charles  B.  Boynton,  D.  D., 
Chaplain  of  the  United  States  House  of  Representatives,  and  Assist- 
ant Professor  at  the  United  States  Xaval  Academy.  Illustrated  with 
ten  full-page  Woodcuts,  Portraits  on  Steel  of  Distinguished  Officers, 
and  numerous  Vignettes  from  Sketches  made  by  Commander  S,  B. 
WooLSET,  United  States  Navy,  with  numerous  Maps  and  Charts  from 
Government  Surveys  and  Official  Plans  furnished  for  this  work  ex- 
clusively.    2  vols.     8vo.     Half  morocco,  $10.00. 

The  whole  material  for  this  work  has  been  drawn  from  documentB  in  po?Be8- 
Bion  of  the  Navy  Department,  so  that  its  narrative  rests  upon  the  highest  possible 
authority.  Dr.  Boynton  bad  free  access  to  the  navy-yards  and  ships,  and  to  the 
Ordnance  Department,  while  his  connection  with  the  Naval  Academy  and  bis 
residence  in  Washington  pave  him  facilities  for  collectiup:  materials  for  his 
history  that  left  little  or  nothin<(  to  desire. 

ANECDOTES  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR.  By  Major-General  E. 
D.  TowNSEND.     With  Illustrations.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

HISTORY  OF  NEW  YORK  DURING  THE  REVOLU- 
TIONARY WAR,  AND  OF  THE  LEADING  EVENTS  IN 
THE  OTHER  COLONIES  AT  THAT  PERIOD.  By  Thomas 
Jones,  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Province.  Edited  by 
Edward  Floyd  de  Lanct.  With  Notes,  Contemporary  Documents, 
Maps,  and  Portraits,    In  2  vols.     8vo.     Cloth,  gilt  top,  $15.00. 

"  Certainly  no  one  historical  work  has  been  issued  in  the  United  States  dnrinfj 
the  last  twenty  years  of  equal  importance  with  this,  unless  it  be  the  'Colonial 
History'  and  'Documentary  History  of  the  Colonies,'  published  by  order  and  at 
the  expense  of  the  State.  The  publication  of  this  history,  so  long  and  jealously 
withheld  from  the  public,  offers  the  unlooked-for  chance  of  seeing  the  men  of  the 
Revolution  through  the  eyes  of  a  vigilant  enemy,  who  knew  them  more  or  less 
exactly,  not  only  as  to  their  characters,  but  their  private  lives  and  family  anteced- 
ents. It  will  cause  more  than  one  descendant  of  ancient  and  honorable  families 
of  New  York  to  wince,  and  to  wince  all  the  more  because  they  are  in  a  poor 
plight  to  refute  the  statements  of  Judge  Jones.  It  may  be  confidently  said  that 
there  is  no  history  of  the  Revolution  extant  which  will  not  demand  remodeling 
in  consequence  of  the  publication  of  this.  Whether  we  like  the  book  or  not,  the 
world  is  better  for  this  able  presentment  of  the  other  side  of  the  question  of  cur 
Revolution."— iViei^  York  Times. 

THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  SAINTS.  A  Full  and  Complete 
History  of  the  Mormons,  from  the  First  Vision  of  Joseph  Smith  to 
the  Last  Courtship  of  Brigham  Young.  By  T.  B.  II.  Stenhocsk. 
niustrated  with  Steel  and  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  Cloth,  $5.00 ; 
Bhcep,  $6.00 ;  half  morocco,  $7.50. 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  k  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


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